RETRACTED ARTICLE: SWOT analysis of the application of three digital media in OLPE physical education teaching: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Abstract

Digital education emphasizes the use of technology to enhance and transform teaching, promoting the improvement of instructional models. It is poised to become a significant driving force in advancing high-quality educational development. However, numerous practical challenges remain, such as disadvantages of digital technology resources, ethical norms, and professional training. This study aims to examine the advantages, disadvantages, opportunities and challenges of the three Online physical education(OLPE) teaching modes–Edmodo, Zoom and Google Meet–through literature review, case-based empirical method, survey-based empirical method, mathematical statistics analysis and SWOT analysis. It explores the international OLPE teaching concept, aiming to integrate digital sports teaching within the OLPE model with current traditional teaching practices, and to develop a paradigm better aligned with modern educational methods. The results revealed that based on constructivist learning theory and situational learning, technological enhancements, correct ethics, and the integration of OLPE resources could help advance the development of digital-physical education teaching. The study offers valuable insights into the challenges and disadvantages of OLPE in digital education. It will provide both theoretical and practical guidance for advancing digital teaching practices.

The rapid development of science and technology in the twenty-first century has made digitalization a hallmark of educational transformation. At present, digital technology has not only enhanced the traditional face-to-face teaching model, but also introduced a variety of new teaching methods. The educational reform brought about by digital progress is regarded as an important requirement for cultivating teachers in the twenty-first century. Informatization in the twenty-first century provides a foundational basis for OLPE, supporting teachers in delivering more effective instruction. To this end, teachers need to embrace advanced information technology, adopting new tools, values, and models to enhance their teaching effectiveness and educational abilities. According to Imel (2002), OLPE is a part of the digital teaching model, characterized by diverse platforms and guided by electronic devices and technologies such as the Internet, audio technology, videotapes, network television, virtual classrooms, online learning and satellite broadcasting. Rasmitadila (2020) states that from the perspective of implementation, OLPE methods can be categorized as synchronous or asynchronous. Simamora (2020) explains that synchronous learning occurs directly and in real-time, using platforms such as Edmodo, Google Meet, and Zoom. Asynchronous learning while also using a learning management system (LMS) such as Edmodo, Google Classroom, and Moodle, allows flexibility without real-time, face-to-face interaction. Teachers may apply one or both of these online learning methods to achieve instructional goals. OLPE is a homogeneous method [1].

Early OLPE: Mclsaac (1996) noted that distance education originated in the United States in the nineteenth century, when teachers and students at the University of Chicago, located in different places, sought to connect through correspondence. During World War I, radio became a medium for universities and schools to explore distance education. As Mclsaac & Gunawardena (1996) described, the first “school of the air” was established in Wisconsin in the 1920s. In the 1950s, with the popularization of television, visual teaching between teachers and students in different locations began. The development of computer and email technology in the 1970s and 1980s led to a significant expansion in distance education. By the mid-1980s, online undergraduate and graduate courses were available. McIsaac and Gunawardena (1996) noted that, in the late 1980s, a shortage of teachers in subjects such as mathematics, science, and foreign languages prompted some K-12 schools to adopt commercial courses delivered via the emerging satellite technology [2]. This innovation significantly contributed to the rapid development of distance education. The 1980s and 1990s saw tremendous innovation and expansion in online education and educational networks, followed by the emergence of desktop video conferencing.

Silverman (1997) anticipated the use of “Virtual Instruction on the World Wide Web”, where telecommunications were used to locate and publish information, seek assistance, and facilitate teacher educators’ interations via e-mail. However, online teaching was not mentioned in the literature. Pierre (1998) reflected on “distance learning” and presented two instrctional cases. In the first, teaching content was delivered over the Internet, using “homepage websites” to provide classroom materials, facilitate homework submission, and enable access to bulletin boards and chat rooms. These homepages, website now known as virtual learning environments (VLEs), included links to related websites. The second case involved “two-way” desktop video conferencing to support group communication and interaction. Goggin (1997) described the use of “list servers” as a teaching tool, along with online discussions via e-mail and “multimedia interactive tutorials.” These resources enabled students to access each unit, engage with the content, and complete quizzes [2].

From 1985 to 1987, the Canadian Pilot Education Workshop network connected teachers and students from over 70 secondary schools across Canada, France, the United Kingdom and Italy. RAPPI used Columbia University’s computer conferencing system to facilitate information exchange, with courses focused on social studies and writing. Through the network, students learned about other cultures, lifestyles, and perspectives; In 1983, the Intercultural Learning Network (ICLN) was launched, initially using ‘sneaker mail’ and later email to connect students from California, Alaska, Japan, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Israel (Riel, 1996). The project enabled joint classroom communications, synchronous romote teaching, and allowed researchers to examine the network’s impact on course activities. A controlled study of cross-classroom collaboration revealed significant improvement in students’ writing skills. In the early 1980s, the application in computer conferencing in university courses fostered the development of online collaborative learning models. By the mid-1980s, Slovenia became the first country to conduct large-scale online education. In the 1990s, countries introduced national policies for online education and launched education network projects, such as Canada’s Distance Learning Network of Centres of Excellence (TLNCE) in 1995 and the Virtual U Field Experiment in 1996 [3].

Review: OLPE model

Definition of the OLPE

Definition of OLPE: (i) Corbin, Le Masurier et al. (2014) describes OLPE as a teaching model focused on Lifelong Fitness or Lifelong Health. The core of OLPE emphasizes on physical health, health concepts, and theoretical principles, particularly in areas such as cardiovascular endurance, nutrition, weight management, and psychological stress. Daum & Buschner (2014) raise issues in OLPE research related to course delivery, design, teaching methods, and improvements in student learning and physical fitness. (ii) According to Kreber and Kanuka (2006), characteristics of OLPE: Online teaching differs from face-to-face instruction, necessitating unique teaching methods. While the traditional role of teachers can transition to an online environment, the new learning setting’s feasibility and limitations require teachers to adapt to create a meaningful learning experience. In addition, cultivating students’ independent awareness of learning awareness is essential. The focus of OLPE is on the physical activities completed by students [4]. (iii) Scope of OLPE application: OLPE platforms include Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet. With OPLE’s growing presence in K-12 education, the US National Governing Agency developed preliminary guidelines for physical education in 2007. These guidelines address content, assessment, technology, teaching design, and necessary support and infrastructure for OLPE courses [5]. According to Ryhtä (2020), the scope of OLPE education also includes didactic, digital and ethical skills and awareness.

Current OLPE: (i) OLPE represents a narrow sense of educational digitalization. In the digital age, OLPE encompasses multiple facets of physical education, including objectives, teaching content, instructional models, assessment, teacher competencies, teaching environments, and instructional processes. Additionally, OLPE involves a comprehensive digital transformation in areas such as sports development planning, international cooperation, curriculum and teaching material development, technological support, educational research, teaching supervision, and management. (ii) OLPE platforms: Common OLPE platforms include Skype, Google Duo, WhatsApp, Hangouts, Zoom, Google Classroom and Microsoft Teams, Edmodo, Google Meet, AnyDesk, and open-source LMS platforms such as Moodle and Sakai. Among these, Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet are widely studied in countries like Spain, the Philippines, the United States, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and Indonesia (Jakarta). The platform provides resources covering areas like sports physiology, sports management, and sports nutrition, supporting teachers in designing and implementing digital sports courses. [6]. (iii)Teaching and learning in OLPE. Teachers’ role: First, teachers can strengthen interaction by setting up collective reflection tasks and activities. Second, through interaction, students are exposed to diverse learning methods, fostering a spirit of cooperation and mutual support [7]. Third, OLPE promotes collaboration and sharing among students, allowing them to exchange sports experiences and skill improvements while benefiting from each other’s insights, creating a positive and supporting learning environment [8].(iv)Students’ engagament: In the second edition of the Handbook of Online and Blended Learning in K-12 in the United States, authors David N. Daum and Craig A. Buschner analyze the suitability of OLPE across grade levels. They suggest that OLPE is highly suitable for elementary school, though opinions differ for middle school students. Some argue that middle school students, due to varying ability levels, may not suitable for OLPE, while others believe that self-disciplined school students in this age group can benefit. At the high school level, most support the use of OLPE.

Prospects for the introduction of OLPE

The development of digital intelligence provides a robust foundation for the OLPE model. The analysis of the application of three digital mtrend has driven both the introduction and evolution of the OLPE teaching model. Digital intelligence in sports represents a transformative shift in the field, characterized by the integration of new technologies, values, elements, and models. The implementation of OLPE must align with the principles of digital intelligence, ensuring consistency with emerging technologies and innovative models. It should reflect the practical logic and guiding principles essential for advancing digital intelligence in modern sports [9]. OLPE reconfigures every element of the physical education teaching process to establish a novel model of technological innovation [10].

With the development of big data, artificial intelligence, and blockchain, physical education has embraced networking, informatization, and intelligence. (i) New elements of dimension: With data as a key innovative resource, the real-time collection, storage, mining, and analysis of data related to sports training, events, and teaching reconfigure traditional sports resources and promote the upgrading of sports instruction and the reconstruction of its value chain. (ii) New model dimension: Innovation-driven development has fostered a new sports model that combines online and offline elements, with online competition as a primary component. This approach has enabled significant advancements in both technology and sports models. (iii) New data elements: Data has become a vital foundation in sports education. The digital sports environment is defined as a comprehensive sports teaching model supportted by digital technology, integrating text, images, video, and interactive features. (iv) Technology support: Modern science and technology, including OLPE digitalization, networking, and artificial intelligence, play a foundational role in advancing sports education. For example, in OLPE, virtual technology enhances sports event instruction, making learning more engaging and helping teachers and students accurately assess movement skills [10].

The progress in digital sports spaces and the deep integration of digital elements in sports education have propelled innovation within the sports sector. Simultaneously, digitalization has raised new requirements for sports talents cultivation, indicating significant changes ahead in talent development approaches. For instance, the OLPE teaching model is closely aligned with digital technology in physical education, not only enhancing the quality and efficiency of sports education services but also providing a new framework for cultivating sports talent and offering a theoretical foundation. OLPE emerged alongside new technologies linked to the ongoing digitalization of sports. It reshapes educational resources, emphasizing the digital and intelligent characteristics and trends within PE education [11]. OLPE research reflects an innovative approach to sports talent development through digitalization. The value-added impact of digital empowerment has improved efficiency in sports development and the effective utilization of sports resources. OLPE research, rooted in the practical context of the digital age and focused on the digitalization of sports education, will provide a model for advancing digital sports education [12].

Necessity: SWOT analysis of the application of three digital media in OLPE physical education teaching

Alfana et al. (2024) evaluated the feasibility of a lighting simulator for electrical maintenance training in vocational education, demonstrating its practicality and offering a framework for the development of educational tools [13]. Similarly, Andre et al. (2024) enhanced the 4Cs skills—critical thinking, creative thinking, communication, and collaboration—in automotive engineering education through the use of a sensor-based tool and the Kvisoft Flipbook application, resulting in significant improvements in students’ academic performance and skill development [14]. Anwar et al. (2024) investigated occupational safety and health (OHS) compliance in vocational schools, identifying low adherence to OHS regulations as a major risk factor for accidents. By applying the HIRARC approach, they proposed strategies to improve student safety during training sessions. Additionally, Srikong et al. (2024) developed an intelligent virtual reality model utilizing eye-tracking technology to enhance surgical skill accuracy in resident training, demonstrating its effectiveness in evaluations. Fortuna et al. (2024) explored the application of Mobile Augmented Reality technology in computer hardware education, showcasing its ability to improve both learning outcomes and student motivation [15]. Collectively, these studies emphasize the potential of innovative technologies to advance educational outcomes in both vocational and higher education contexts.

The analysis of Zoom, Google Meet, and Edmodo highlights their complementary roles in OLPE. Zoom and Google Meet facilitate real-time interaction and synchronous teaching, which are essential for demonstrating physical skills and providing immediate feedback. In contrast, Edmodo, as a learning management system, supports asynchronous learning through content delivery, assignment management, and discussion forums, thereby ensuring continuity beyond live sessions. Together, these platforms form a comprehensive digital teaching ecosystem that addresses both synchronous and asynchronous needs in OLPE. This integrated approach supports diverse teaching paradigms in physical education, including online, offline, and hybrid models.

The review revealed that existing studies have predominantly focused on enhancing educational and training technologies to improve students’ learning outcomes and skills. These studies have utilized modern technologies, such as virtual reality, augmented reality, and electronic modules, to increase the interactivity and practicality of education. They have also addressed tailored solutions for specific subject areas, including mechanical processing, medical surgery, computer hardware, and electrical maintenance. Identified Gap: Despite advancements in online learning and teaching technologies, OLPE remains underexplored. Specifically, the contribution of platforms such as Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet to physical education has not been thoroughly examined. Research Objective: This study aims to explore the advantages, disadvantages, opportunities, and challenges of OLPE in physical education, with a particular focus on the dilemmas related to digital technology resources, ethical norms, and professional training. The goal is to provide both theoretical and practical directions for the development and implementation of OLPE in physical education.

Methodology

The research began with a literature search using SCOPUS, PubMed, EBSCOhost, Web of Science, and CNKI to identify relevant studies. “Additionally, based on the reviewed literature, case study research was used as the specific empirical research method. The study analyzed institutions with at least one year of experience using the platforms and tracked 250 physical education teachers from Asia, Europe, and North America, representing K-12 university, and vocational training levels. A comprehensive review, analysis, and examination of their perspectives on OLPE were conducted to explore its advantages, disadvantages, opportunities, and challenges. No questionnaire survey was used in this study.”

Analysis of the advantages of three digital media in the OLPE model: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Overview of advantages

Sword (2012) noted that OLPE promotes the development of critical and creative thinking in teaching while challenging traditional face-to-face methods. It enables teachers to integrate diverse techniques and strategies, broadens the scope of training, is easy to implement, aligns well with students’ needs, and enhances the appeal of learning. Additionally, OLPE provides students from different regions with equal access to high-quality resources. As an open and interactive structure, OLPE integrates teaching content with computers, multimedia, and data networks into the curriculum. Systematic teaching through platforms like Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet can effectively meet students’ learning needs [6].

OLPE offers a wide range of teaching methods for physical education, such as virtual reality and motion tracking sensors, which help students understand sports movements and skills more intuitively. Technology motivates students, enhancing their learning outcomes. OLPE also allows students to observe international high-level sports events, as well as the training techniques, processes, and skills of elite athletes. This approach fosters innovation in teaching models and improves students’ learning experience and engagement. Through demonstrations by top athletes, students can develop complete and accurate techniques. Furthermore, digital and visual teaching methods present course content intuitively, boosting teaching efficiency, increasing students engagement, and nurturing students’ interest and resilience in sports training, thereby enabling them to experience the true appeal of physical education [16].

Addressing key and difficult teaching points

Chaney (2011) emphasized that OLPE places high demands on teachers. When certain challenging movements are difficult to demonstrate accurately due to individual abilities and physical limitations, OPLE enables teachers to use techniques like replay fast-forwarding, slow motion, and switch between static and dynamic views, helping students to master correct skills more efficiently. For example, by watching training video of Olympic champion Liu Xiang, where hurdle movements are played at variable speeds, students can improve students’ learning efficiency and make their movement skills reach a unified standard [17]. In addition, OLPE is easy to manage and is innovative, diverse, interactive, comfortable and safe.

Application of constructivist learning theory and situational learning in OLPE teaching

Situational Learning lends depth and credibility to the advantages of empirical OLPE. (i) Constructivist theory. Constructivism in OLPE redefines the roles of teachers and students, emphasizing student-centered learning and recognizing students as developing, unique individuals. Under teacher guidance, students take the lead in learning, constructing a cohesive blend of sports theory and skill practice, thereby maximizing their initiative in learning. In OLPE, constructivist teaching theory encourages students to move beyond traditional educational concepts, challenging conventional learning constraints and establishing a new approach to learning. This approach guides students, innovates traditional methods, and aims to stimulate intrinsic motivation. Teachers take on roles as organizers, facilitators, and promoters, designing thoughtful lesson plans, providing abundant learning resources, guiding students to use OLPE resources, and combining theoretical knowledge with practical sports skills to build a new knowledge framework. OLPE’s foundation in constructivist learning theory asserts that knowledge is actively constructed by learners rather than transmitted by teachers. Learners build new experiences based on prior knowledge with guidance. OLPE satisfies the environmental requirements of constructivist learning theory, making it an ideal framework. Constructivist theory highlights using learning scenarios, collaboration, discussion, and other environmental elements to boost students’ enthusiasm. It also advocates using competition as a learning catalyst: competition serves as a demonstration platform, sparking interest and initiative, thereby enhancing learning outcomes.

(ii) Situational learning: Situational learning is a theory that explains an individual’s acquisition of professional skills and “takes as its focus the relationship between learning and the social situation in which it occurs” [18].Through situated learning, students can appreciate the practical value of knowledge within real social contexts, which fosters motivation and research interest. Teamwork and a competitive environment activate students’ engagement, driven by an intrinsic desire to succeed. In this setting, students construct and acquire knowledge with the support of teachers and peers. The principles of OLPE design prioritize student-centered, situational and collaborative learning, embodying the core tenets of situational learning (Table 1).

Table 1.

Advantages of three digital media in physical education teaching in the OLPE model

Edmodo	Zoom	Google Meet
In the United States, OLPE utilizes Edmodo to upload various training videos and courseware, allowing students to watch and learn at any time. Teachers assign online tests and homework, which students complete and submit online. Teachers then provide real-time corrections and feedback, improving teaching quality and saving time In the United Kingdom, Edmodo is used to organize school sports competitions, publish competition notices and schedules, and enable students to register and check in online. Through Edmodo’s discussion area, students share their competition experiences, and teachers provide comments and encouragement, enhancing students’ sense of participation and enthusiasm In Canada, sports coaches use Edmodo to develop detailed training plans for team members. By tracking each member’s progress, maintaining communication, answering questions during training, and providing technical guidance, coaches ensure the quality and effectiveness of the team members’ training	During the COVID-19 period, Zoom became well known for its stable video conferencing capabilities and unique teaching methods such as breakout roomes for group discussions and screen sharing. It is especially suited for real-time interaction and demonstration teaching, offering a high-quality live teaching experience. As education worldwide shifted from offline to online. Zoom 5.0 was released in May 2020 to support the OLPE teaching model. Its key advantage is the ability to record, store and share sessions in the cloud, with recordings available for download and storage on a hard drive for up to 30 days Zoom offers several advantages for OLPE. First, for skill-based teaching, teachers demonstrate movements while students imitate and practice through videos. Students can practice movements at home or in any suitable location, and teachers observe and provide feedback in real time. Second, for virtual sports training, students train at home while teachers offer real-time guidance and corrections via ZOOM, ensuring efficient training. Physical education teachers can conduct online theoretical lessons, practical skills teaching, virtual training, and competitions effectively. Additionally, Zoom facilitates tutoring, Q&A sessions, and feedback. Teachers can provide individual or group tutoring, address learning challenges, and enhance the quality of physical education instruction Finally, Zoom supports online competitions and skill assessments, allowing students to showcase their skills while teachers evaluate and give feedback in real time	By making effective use of the Google Meet, teachers can conduct online theoretical instruction, virtual competitions, tutoring, and Q&A sessions, and evaluation feedback, thus enhancing the quality and effectiveness of physical education instruction. Teachers can vividly highlight key concepts from textbooks, stimulate active student engagement, and foster objective thinking and imagination For theoretical instruction, teachers use Google Meet to explain physical education concepts and share PPTs, videos, and other teaching resources via the screen sharing function. Kim (2021) noted out that OLPE can increase participation among students who may lack physical skills or confidence, supporting their grow professionally and personally In practical skills training, teachers demonstrate sports skills and movements in real time, enabling students to practice simultaneously at home. Teachers observe students’ movements through video and provide immediate feedback and guidance. Additionally, teachers can record lessons for students to review after class, reinforcing learning outcomes. Google Meet not only boots students’ enthusiasm for learning but also help maintain high teaching quality and effectiveness

Advantages of Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet in OLPE and physical education

Analysis of the disadvantages of three digital media in the OLPE Model: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Overview of disadvantages

Chan et al. (2021) found that, regardless of the digital platform used, the teaching process and quality of OLPE were generally inferior to traditional face-to-face instruction. OLPE has been less effective in improving students’ sports skills and physical activity levels, mainly due to a lack of practical training and limited interpersonal interaction. For teachers, motivating students is challenging without direct, in-person engagement. Similarly, Diciano (2021) identified several challenges in OLPE, including teacher-student interaction (lack of feedback), technology-related issues (technology usability and unstable Internet connections), online classroom limitations (absence of educational facilities, inadequate learning space and limited access to printed materials), instructional challenges (inability to participate in hans-on sports activities, difficulty conveying the true value of physical education, lack of direct supervision, and limited teacher demonstration) and personal factors (variations in learning style).

Furthermore, the inherent hands-on nature of physical education and the value of direct social interaction cannot be fully replicated in an online environment [19]. According to Daum and Woods (2015), the quality of OLPE remains uncertain. A report by SHAPE America (2016) indicates that only 19 of 44 states require certified teachers to teach OLPE courses, while nearly half allow individuals without physical education certification to teach these courses. Consequently, there is no unified standard for OLPE qualifications. Additionally, Daum and Buschner (2012) noted that OLPE course content is typically limited, often focusing on fitness and health, weight training, and select sports like golf. More than half of OLPE courses at the middle school level reportedly fail to meet national physical education standards (Daum & Buchner, 2012).

In skill-based teaching, although videos can record students’ sports skills (e.g., dribbling), OLPE’s limited capacity to address subtle movement nuances creates learning challengess for students and result in minimal grade improvement. OLPE teachers report that their courses primarily emphasize theoretical knowledge, such as sports principles and sports humanities. Practical skills involving team interaction, equipment reliance, specific venues, and physical contact sports (e.g., swimming, martial arts, winter sports, and outdoor activities) are less suited for online formats [20].

The effectiveness of OLPE assessment methods has also been questioned. Unlike traditional face-to-face instruction, OLPE lacks direct physical participation and accurate activity monitoring. Students may submit inaccurate activity logs, which is far less than the achievements realized under direct teacher supervision [21] (Table 2).

Table 2.

Disadvantages of the OLPE model in physical education

Technical facilities and fatigue	Teacher-student emotional aspects	Student exercise volume
1.Technological innovation is an important factor in promoting the development of digital teaching. Technology is particularly important in preparing lessons or teaching. Teachers need to spend a lot of time preparing lessons due to lack of technology, which can easily cause fatigue. They need to spend more time in front of the screen to send personal emails, solve doubts, and edit videos 2.Infrastructure needs. The facilities owned by students are uneven, such as desktop computers, laptops, and Internet devices, which makes it difficult for students to learn online synchronously [22] 3.Virtual teaching lacks face-to-face contact, intuitive communication, direct physical involvement, and visual cues, which leads to frustration due to the inability to reach students, resulting in the interaction between teachers and students being less detailed than in the classroom, causing fatigue	1. OLPE avoids the emotional and social aspects of physical education. OLPE teaching method hinders intuitive information, and it is difficult for teachers and students to convey subtle emotional information such as facial expressions and body language. It is difficult for teachers to directly grasp and experience the emotions that students want to express 2. It is impossible to truly feel the emotional response of students. Teachers’ emotions are diluted or even ignored due to the abstraction of digital processing. It has brought an impact on the establishment of emotions between teachers and students 3.When using digital devices for communication, recording, and data transmission, the space for students to learn becomes isolated. Facing the digital learning environment, the emotional interaction between teachers and students is reduced	1. Hager (2012) found that students who participated in OLPE had 8% lower levels of physical activity than students who participated in face-to-face physical education classes [23]. Silverman (1985) pointed out that in the OLPE course, the students’ scores in basic sports skills (hopping on one leg, skipping rope, jumping, etc.) and sports skills (throwing, catching, kicking, hitting, etc.) showed negative growth 2. It is difficult to meet the learning content standards stipulated by the state. Physical education is a learning method mainly based on physical participation. During OLPE, sedentary behavior increases and sports behavior decreases 3. In OLPE teaching, teachers and students do not personally participate in sports, and the phenomenon of mental fitness increases. In skill classes, direct physical participation in sports is difficult to ensure 4. OLPE lacks face-to-face guidance and supervision, and students may be injured due to irregular movements. Students lack self-discipline, which varies from person to person. Some students may lack self-discipline, find it difficult to persist in training, and reduce the amount of exercise. In addition, the first generation of OLPE courses does not meet the standards of comprehensive physical education teaching, and there is no data to verify whether OLPE is a viable learning platform

Analysis of the disadvantages of three digital media in the OLPE model: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet have SWOT weaknesses in OLPE teaching. Edmodo is relatively weak in real-time interaction and video functions, which may affect the effectiveness of real-time teaching. Due to the lack of strong video support, teachers will be limited in real-time demonstration and interaction; Zoom lacks the ability to manage and organize resources for large-scale long-term courses, which may affect the systematic management of courses; Google Meet’s simple interface means that the selection and operation of functions are relatively limited in terms of interactive tools and video conferencing functions, and cannot meet the needs of complex meetings (Table 3).

Table 3.

Disadvantages of three digital media in physical education teaching in the OLPE model

Edmodo’s Disadvantages in Physical Education			Disadvantages of zoom in physical education			Google Meet’s Disadvantages in Physical Education
Functional limitations	Features	Applicable scenarios	Functional limitations	Features	Applicable scenarios	Functional limitations	Features	Applicable scenarios
Edmodo lacks real-time interaction in physical education, lacks instant feedback on physical education activities, does not support live broadcasting or simultaneous interactive use of other multimedia tools. There is no sports tracking function and lacks built-in sports data statistical analysis function	“Edmodo is designed primarily for text-based communication, assignments, and quizzes, making it less effective for teaching physical skills that require visual and kinesthetic learning methods.”	Edmodo is not suitable for skill classes that require detailed observation, such as difficult and aesthetic movements in dance or gymnastics. Monitoring progress: teachers cannot effectively monitor students’ physical condition or ensure correct techniques. Environmental restrictions: students may complete their studies in an environment that is not suitable for physical activities	ZOOM’s camera field of view cannot capture the full range of student movements. It is difficult for teachers to accurately observe and assess physical skills. Lack of physical interaction, such as the platform does not allow hands-on instruction or real-time physical correction. Inadequate assessment tools, ZOOM lacks specialized features for sports assessment, such as movement tracking or interactive feedback mechanisms [24]	Video quality issues: Changes in Internet bandwidth can cause video quality to lag, which prevents teachers from effectively assessing students’ learning progress. Audio delay: Lag in audio transmission can undermine the effectiveness of teaching competitive sports that require precise timing, such as dance or martial arts routines	Karnam (2020), Zoom has serious security risks and its use of stored data is worrying. Zoom’s privacy policy does not clearly state how they handle recorded meetings, so there is a privacy threat. According to Business Insider, Zoom has been accused of passing data to third parties, without notifying users. The “transmission encryption” used by Zoom when sending data is less secure than the “end-to-end encryption” used by other companies on the Internet. [25]	Google Meet’s simple interface means that the selection and operation of functions are relatively limited. Google Meet lacks dedicated functions for sports teaching, such as sports analysis or interactive practice modules. The video quality is unstable, and lacks direct participation functions. There is no built-in assessment function, and Google Meet cannot conduct real-time quizzes or skill assessments for sports activities	Rahamat (2011) pointed out that when students are dribbling, the teacher cannot see all students at the same time, making it difficult to ensure the correctness of the students’ skills. Soltan (2016), in homogeneous group teaching, the teacher guides students to jump shots, and the teacher cannot clearly observe the full range of students’ body movements, such as leg position and arm movement	There are many disadvantages of using Google Meet for synchronous meetings, including inefficient communication and interaction between teachers and students, inability to carry out practical applications, lack of social interaction, lack of motivation to learn, insufficient checking of objective class tasks, and possible cheating or decline in physical and mental health [26]. For example, spending too much time in front of the screen and developing a sedentary lifestyle [27]

Analysis of opportunities for OLPE development

The OLPE teaching method is a highly technology- and data-intensive field, demanding significant knowledge, technological proficiency, digital literacy, and business acumen from practitioners. However, the current landscape of sports talent development reveals a gap, particularly in the shortage of multidisciplinary sports professionals skilled in both digital technology and sports business knowledge. Thus, strengthening the training of digital sports professionals and developing new models and systems for digital sports talent cultivation have become pressing issues in modern sports education [28].

Addressing these challenges requires a foundation in science and technology as the primary productive force, talent as the foremost resource, and innovation as the driving force. The focus also reflects the intensifying international competition for high-quality talent and technological leadership. Consequently, OLPE’s three digital media–Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet–face unprecedented development opportunities.

Opportunities for Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet in physical education

Edmodo improves the real-time teaching experience by integrating video and interactive functions, making it a more versatile platform that meets a broad range of teaching needs; Zoom has developed into a comprehensive teaching platform by strengthening course management and resource-sharing functions, offering a one-stop solution from course management to real-time interaction. Google Meet has the potential to further optimize video quality and interactive tools, improving the overall user experience and meeting diverse teaching needs with robust technical support from Google.

Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet are being effectively integrated into the OLPE. Ge et al. (2024) demonstrated that the implementation of online training positively influences students’ intrinsic motivation and physical performance [29]. To maximize the integration of these platforms in OLPE, it is essential to develop interactive features that facilitate real-time discussions and provide immediate feedback, as these elements have been linked to enhanced student engagement and learning outcomes [30]. Furthermore, the incorporation of gamified elements and sports-specific resources can significantly enrich the learning experience [30].

Challenges and threats of three digital media in the OLPE model: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Overview of threats and challenges Ethical security and technology

• (i)Ethics. In OLPE, physical education teachers must uphold moral principles, adhere to ethical standards, and demonstrate strong humanistic qualities [31].Teachers are required to understand and leverage the advantages of digital technology in data collection, processing and knowledge dissemination, while remaining vigilant about potential ethical and safety concerns [32]. They must be prepared to address the ethical challenges posed by information technology, strictly following procedures for data acquisition, processing and application to prevent data leakage, theft, misuse, and loss, thus safegarding student privacy and upholding ethical standards [33].
• (ii)Technical and security aspects. Technical implementation faces challenges related to manipulation, decoding, and editing. For example, a notable limitation of Edmodo is its reliance on access to technical equipment and an Internet connection for teaching and learning [25]. Digital privacy involves the collection, storage, and use of personal information, with data breaches posing significant threats to the security of personal and social data. Tripathi (2020) highlighted that data privacy breaches can adversely impact education and generate negative public sentiment. Similarly, Lee (2022) analyzed the Facebook-Cambridge Analytica incident, demonstrating how privacy breaches can lead to heightened public concern and fear. Lorayne (2020) further emphasized the prevalence of digital privacy issues, noting that many companies continue to collect and sell consumer data without explicit consent, exacerbating public apprehension.

Challenges and limitations in OLPE: technology, teaching feedback, and facility availability issues

OLPE faces various challenges, including academic integrity, learner readiness, student retention, and technology-related issues. Additionally, OLPE encounters unique difficulties in teaching and learning motor skills such as hopping, skipping, and jumping, as well as sports skills like throwing, catching, kicking, hitting with a bat, dancing, and physical fitness activities. Due to the limited interface of Google Meet, teachers often rely on PowerPoint presentations, which may prevent them from noticing students’ questions promptly or providing immediate feedback, making it difficult for students to keep pace with real-time discussions. Furthermore, teachers may be unable to observe each student directly, leading to potential errors in skill practice before feedback is given [34].

An indirect factor affecting Edmodo’s use is facility availability. Limited access to necessary hardware equipment or stable internet connections can hinder students’ online activities. For those in rural areas or regions with varying levels of communication service, insufficient information flow can become a significant barrier.

Challenges of Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet in physical education

Edmodo challenge: Enhancing real-time interaction capabilities while preserving its robust course management functions. Additionally, some students face challenges due to limited computer skills. Zoom challenge: Improving course management and resource-sharing capabilities for physical education without compromising its video conferencing strengths. Google Meet challenge: Strengthening interactive features while maintaining accessibility to better meet the diverse needs physical education instruction.

Local Contexts of Platform Adaptation. The adaptation of Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet to local contexts, particularly in Indonesia and other developing countries, requires addressing challenges such as limited internet access and inadequate hardware availability [9]. Wojniusz (2024) emphasized that these infrastructural limitations significantly affect the effectiveness of digital platforms in resource-constrained settings. For example, optimizing platforms for low-bandwidth environments and integrating offline features are critical steps toward ensuring equitable access. Additionally, Salarvand et al. (2023) noted that students and teachers with limited technological skills often encounter difficulties in accessing and interacting with digital content, which can impede their learning progress [35].

Development strategies for three digital media in the OLPE model: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Standardize technology and strengthen professional ethics, application of Virtual Reality (VR), Artificial Intelligence (AI), social element, and situated learning theory in PE.

• (i)Standardize technology: Teachers should be proficient in operating digital software and equipment, troubleshooting common issues, and applying digital teaching techniques. Training on the use of teaching software and platforms should be enhanced. Establish standardized operating procedures for sports activity monitoring devices, such as pedometers, heart rate monitors, and motion trackers, to ensure effective monitoring sports activities. This foundation will support the design and organizationof “online + offline” physical education courses. By collecting and integrating online sports resources through various channels, we can accelerate the construction of a digital sports teaching system, optimize digital teaching knowledge points, restructure movement training content, and improve physical education teachers’ digital knowledge and teaching skills [36].

  To effectively integrate OLPE technology, it is essential to enhance teachers’ application skills and adapt both their roles and those of students to the evolving educational landscape. Teachers must possess a strong foundation in OLPE-specific professional knowledge and become proficient in using new teaching tools and methods. When designing teaching activities that incorporate OLPE technology, educational objectives should be seamlessly integrated into the application scenarios to ensure that technology serves to enhance the educational process. Teachers should utilize VR and AR technologies to create immersive learning experiences, enabling students to practice sports skills in OLPE simulation environments, deepen their understanding of sports theory, and promote problem-oriented learning. Furthermore, educators should guide students in using OLPE tools for research and study, fostering independent thinking, problem-solving abilities, and effective interaction with OLPE technology.

• (ii)Strengthening Professional Ethics. In OLPE, researchers must address digital ethics and security concerns with greater depth. Regarding data security, it is crucial to strictly adhere to established protocols for data acquisition, processing, and application, thereby preventing data theft, misuse, and loss. Ethical standards form the foundation for robust data security. To this end, it is essential to revise the underlying values and reconstruct the ethical framework in physical education. Ethical standards must reinforce the central role of teachers in physical education, enhance their awareness of risk prevention, and ensure that digital teaching is built within a morally constrained framework. OLPE cannot function independently of teachers, and digital teaching must mitigate the risk of digitalization becoming the dominant force in education. It is necessary to carefully manage the process of digital integration in OLPE, clarify the boundaries of physical education, and avoid biases in the values assigned to the discipline. Simultaneously, physical education teachers must possess the qualities necessary to address the ethical challenges posed by digitalization.

  Promote digital literacy to reduce the digital divide and ensure that digital technology contributes to long-term development [37]. Address digital ethics and security issues by adhering to ethical standards in data acquisition, processing, and usage, safegarding privacy and preventing information leakage [33]. Establish a secure data system for school sports, enforce confidentiality, strengthen self-discipline among practitioners, and standardize professional conduct.

• (iii)Application of VR and AI in PE. VR: Immersive Practice Environments. VR can create realistic environments in which students can practice movements and techniques. These simulated environments replicate real-world scenarios, thereby enhancing skill acquisition without the need for a physical location.Real-Time Feedback. Through motion tracking and haptic feedback, VR provides immediate corrections to physical movements. For example, a virtual coach can offer real-time guidance on posture adjustments during an exercise routine.Simulation of Supervision. VR platforms can simulate the presence of an instructor, offering step-by-step guidance and interactively demonstrating correct techniques. Wu (2023) proposed a digital sports dance teaching platform based on virtual reality technology, which significantly enhanced teaching outcomes by improving students’ learning interest and motion recognition efficiency. Similarly, Jiang (2018) noted that VR technology greatly improved human–computer interaction and the quality of education in digital media art education. AI Movement Analysis. AI algorithms can analyze body movements through video footage or wearable sensors. This capability provides detailed feedback on form, angles, and biomechanics, assisting learners in refining their techniques. For example, AI can identify recurring errors and offer targeted advice or practice routines. Automated Assessment. AI can assess students’ physical movements against pre-defined criteria, alleviating the burden on instructors while providing objective evaluations. Singh (2024) highlighted the significant potential of integrating VR technologies into sports training, noting that overcoming existing technical and implementation challenges could lead to substantial improvements in athlete performance. The findings offer valuable guidance for future research and help stakeholders enhance the integration of technology in this field more effectively and intelligently [38].
• (iv)Social Element: A Crucial Aspect of Physical Education. Zoom enables real-time group activities, while platforms like Edmodo facilitate ongoing collaboration through forums and peer reviews. Gamified elements, such as team challenges and leaderboards, enhance engagement and foster teamwork. Advanced technologies, including virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), simulate shared activities, further promoting social interaction [39].
• (v)Constructivist Learning Theory and Situational Learning: Frameworks for Effective OLPE. Constructivist learning theory emphasizes student-centered learning, where students actively construct knowledge rather than passively receiving information. In the context of OLPE, this is operationalized by encouraging students to integrate sports theory with practical skills, thereby fostering autonomy and intrinsic motivation.
• (vi)Situational Learning in OLPE. Situational Learning emphasizes the significance of real-world contexts and social interactions in the learning process. OLPE integrates these principles through team-based online activities, competitive gaming environments, and real-time feedback loops that replicate authentic sports scenarios. By leveraging these theoretical frameworks, OLPE evolves from a purely instructional model to one that promotes dynamic, meaningful, and applicable learning experiences (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Diagram of the theoretical model applied to OLPE

The theoretical model for OLPE integrates constructivist and Situational Learning, depicted as two overlapping circles in a Venn diagram. The constructivist circle emphasizes student-centered learning, active knowledge construction, and teacher facilitation, while the Situational Learning circle underscores the importance of real-world context, teamwork, and competition as key catalysts. The intersection of these circles represents shared objectives, such as enhancing student engagement, fostering collaboration, and facilitating the application of knowledge in practical settings. This model highlights the synergy between the two theories, illustrating how their integration informs the design of OLPE, fostering an engaging, collaborative, and application-oriented learning environment that effectively bridges theory and practice.

Reflections and references on three digital media in the OLPE model: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet

Based on the theoretical framework and supported by digitalization, and AI, the basic design of OLPE relies on online teaching platforms such as Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet, fully leverging Internet resources. Learning is grounded in constructivist and situational teaching models. Through innovative resource allocation and technological advancement a hybrid teaching model is established to promote and facilitate student-centered learning, creating a dynamic and efficient interactive teaching model between teachers and students. It should be noted that the red elements within the theoretical framework represent contributions introduced through this approach (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

See: Mike Sharples (2020), Theoretical framework of physical education teaching model in OLPE environment

Utilized in physical education: Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet. Romo (2021) analyzed students’ opinions on the use of Google Meet in physical education courses, and the results showed that it has high accessibility and effectiveness. Lobo (2022) used the technology acceptance model to analyze students’ acceptance of Google Meet for physical education courses, revealing the factors affecting students’ acceptance. Hilal (2022) evaluated the educational performance of Google Classroom and Zoom during COVID-19 through SWOT analysis and De Lone-Mc Lean model, and the results showed that Google Classroom performed better than Zoom.ЯHКOBEЦЬ (2021) discussed the use of Zoom for online courses in Ukrainian universities, highlighting its easy installation, high cost-effectiveness, and versatility in supporting a variety of communication activities.

The SWOT analysis of OLPE reveals that the technical and ethical enhancement of digital teaching applications promotes a balanced understanding of both the current state and future potential, thereby ensuring the development of robust and effective strategies for success. The analysis identifies specific advantages of platforms such as Edmodo (course management), Zoom (real-time interaction), and Google Meet (theoretical facilitation). Consequently, the study integrates theoretical perspectives to elucidate OLPE’s benefits in fostering student-centered learning and contextual applications. Furthermore, the findings introduce new variables, such as professional training and ethical considerations, enriching existing theoretical frameworks and offering refined approaches. The actionable insights derived from this analysis provide valuable guidance for policymakers and practitioners, enabling them to enhance digital teaching competencies, adhere to ethical standards, and mitigate potential threats for the sustainable and effective implementation of OLPE.

Conclusion

An analysis of Edmodo, Zoom, and Google Meet in OPLE reveals that each platform has unique advantages and disadvantages. The survey of educators revealed that OLPE contributed to technology fatigue, a lack of emotional connection between teachers and students, ethical concerns, and a decrease in student physical activity. While digital teaching platforms face challenges related to technology, teacher engagement, and data security, they also offer significant advantages and potential. Zoom and Google Meet are particularly effective in enabling real-time, interactive instruction, which is crucial for synchronous teaching, whereas Edmodo facilitates asynchronous learning by offering tools for content delivery, assignment management, and student collaboration. Educators should select or combine these platforms flexibly based on specific teaching needs to maximize their instructional impact. It is anticipated that with advances in digital teaching technology and platform functionality, OLPE will further enhance teaching quality and support students’ holistic development.

Limitation and future research

The limitations of this study include: (i) Regional and Geographical Constraints: The three digital media platforms are primarily prevalent in English-speaking countries and are less commonly used in non-English-speaking countries, such as China. Additionally, the review focused exclusively on documents in Chinese and English, excluding those in other significant languages, such as German, French, and Russian, which may have limited the comprehensiveness of the analysis.

In future research, OLPE is likely to emphasize technical, ethical, and pedagogical improvements, with a particular focus on hybrid teaching models that integrate both online and offline elements. This approach would allow students to acquire theoretical knowledge and view technical demonstrations online before engaging in hands-on practice.

Abbreviations

SWOT

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

LMS

Learning Management System

OLPE

Online Physical Education

TLNCE

Canada’s Distance Learning Network of Centres of Excellence

PE

Physical Education

VR

Virtual Reality

AI

Artificial Intelligence

Authors’ contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication. YG wrote the entire manuscript, LZ reviewed the manuscript and made corrections, and MT processed the tables and figures.

Funding

This study was funded by the PhD Research Start-up Fund of Hubei University of Automotive Technology “Cross-Cultural Interpretation and Translation of Gender Stereotypes” [Grant No. BK202453].

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. This study was submitted to, and approved by the to the Dongfeng Hospital Ethics Committee. According to China’s 2017 Regulation No. 27 on Ethical Review of Biomedical Research Involving Humans, Chapter 4, Article 36. The deemed study does not involve research on human subjects, animals, or sensitive personal data. Deemed unnecessary according to national regulations the ethics committee. However, all participants were informed of the study’s purpose, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study to participation in accordance with institutional research guidelines and ethical research practices.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.