Abstract
Background
Traditional herbal medicine has played a vital role in human societies, contributing to health through both therapeutic and nutritional functions. This study aims to document the medicinal plants in the multi-ethnic areas of Guizhou Province, China, and quantitatively evaluate the diversity of traditional knowledge and its cultural significance.
Methods
We conducted field investigations with 103 respondents from 7 ethnic groups (including Han and six ethnic minorities) within the region, utilizing key informant interviews, semi-structured interviews, and participatory rural appraisal to systematically collect ethnobotanical knowledge. This included the types of medicinal plants, their parts used, traditional processing methods, indications, and application scenarios. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including National Cultural Significance Index (NCSI), Shannon-Wiener Index (H'), Simpson Index (D), and Sorenson Similarity Index (CS), were employed to evaluate herbal importance, diversity, evenness, and knowledge similarity among different villages and ethnic groups.
Results
A total of 200 medicinal materials (85 families, 169 genera) were recorded, with Fabaceae being the most represented family. They are mainly used to treat rheumatism and other common ailments, typically prepared as decoctions. Medicinal plant knowledge demonstrated high diversity and evenness across villages and ethnic groups (Shannon-Wiener indices ranging from 3.23 to 3.59, and Simpson indices from 0.0091 to 0.0186. The top three most frequently used species were Cynanchum auriculatum (HUF = 0.17), Lygodium japonicum (HUF = 0.16), and Pleuropterus multiflorus (HUF = 0.15). Taraxacum mongolicum holds the highest cultural significance (NCSI = 700). Intervillage and interethnic similarity showed low to moderate levels (Sorensen CS: 0.19 to 0.60 among villages; 0.31 to 0.62 among ethnic groups). Notably, only 45 species (22.5%) were shared across five or more villages, while 109 species (54.5%) were recorded in only one or two villages, reflecting a “limited similarity” pattern. The shared core resources mirror the fundamental role of the environment, while the ethnoculturally specific nature of the knowledge emphasizes the cultural shaping forces.
Conclusion
These findings indicate that the internal diversity of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in multi-ethnic areas is high, and there is “limited similarity” among villages and ethnic groups. The environment and culture jointly shape the formation of traditional medicinal knowledge. This research provides basic data for the protection and sustainable utilization of medicinal resources.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-026-00903-7.
Keywords: Medicinal plants, Ethnobotany, Traditional knowledge, Cultural significance index
Background
Traditional herbal medicine has played a vital role in human societies, contributing to health through both therapeutic and nutritional functions. Nearly every region has developed medicinal systems based on traditional herbal knowledge. In Asia, this includes China’s traditional medicine, the Ayurveda of the Himalayas [1], Indonesia’s Jamu [2], Bhutan’s Sowa Rigpa [3], Japan’s Kampo [4], Thailand’s traditional medicine [5], and the herbal medicine practices of Bangladesh [6]. In Africa, approximately 80% of the population relies on traditional herbal medicine [7]. In ancient Egypt, medicine and magic were closely linked, with health and illness perceived as influenced by the relationship between humanity and the cosmos [8]. The medical tradition of Europe can be traced back to its origins in ancient Greece and Rome. Early texts, such as the 9th book of Theophrastus of Eresos’ Enquiry into Plants, document extensive knowledge of medicinal plants [9]. The Unani system, a holistic medical tradition originating in ancient Greece over 2,500 years ago, is now formally integrated into India’s national healthcare framework [10, 11]. In South America, the knowledge of medicinal plants in Brazil is the result of cultural interactions among indigenous people, European colonizers, and African immigrants, while the history of plant utilization in Central America can be traced back over five thousand years [12–14]. To this day, traditional herbal medicines are still widely utilized across the globe and continue to draw the attention of modern research. Examples include Mexico’s use of Geraniaceae plants to treat eye infections [15], Africa’s application of Asteraceae and Fabaceae species to alleviate headaches [16], and the Middle East’s exploration of the anti-diabetic potential of Asteraceae and Orchidaceae plants [17]. Even communities in similar ecological environments may perceive and use wild plants very differently due to cultural, religious, or ethnic identity, demonstrating how culture and environment jointly shape traditional knowledge [18].
China has a history of over 5,000 years of using traditional herbal medicine [19, 20]. From the Shennong Bencao Jing, which documents 365 medicinal substances, to the seminal Bencao Gangmu, which compiles 1,892 medicinal substances, these works form the grand foundation of traditional Chinese medicine [21, 22]. As a unified multi-ethnic nation, 52 out of the 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities in China possess relatively complete systems of ethnic medical theory or rich traditional medical knowledge [23]. Together, they constitute vital components of the broader “traditional Chinese medicine” system. Among these, Tibetan, Mongolian, Uyghur, and Dai medicine are collectively known as the “Four Major Ethnic Medicines” [24]. They possess classic works such as the Four Medical Tantras and the Mongolian Medical Canon [25–27], along with unique theoretical frameworks, like the “Five Sources and Three Causes” and the “Three Roots and Seven Elements” [28–31]. Additionally, ethnic groups such as the Yi, Miao, and Gelao also have their distinctive medical systems, exemplified by the Yi medicine theory of “Clear and Turbid Qi” [32]. Most ethnic medical traditions in China are passed down orally or in writing, forming valuable intangible cultural heritage. These traditions are distributed across provinces, especially in autonomous regions, where ethnic minorities have developed distinctive local medical cultures.
Guizhou Province stands out as one of the regions in China boasting the richest ethnic minority cultures. It is well-known for its unique pattern featuring large-scale multi-ethnic cohabitation alongside small-scale ethnic enclaves, coupled with a profound tradition of cultural integration. This study focuses on the multi-ethnic convergence zone in northwest Guizhou, China. The region’s distinctive karst topography and diverse climatic conditions have given rise to a unique biodiversity, which serves as a shared natural resource pool for its various ethnic groups. Against this background, a variety of ethnic communities have emerged, primarily composed of the Miao, Buyi, Yi, and Gelao peoples [33]. Through long-term adaptation to their environment, each group has developed distinct cultural traits. For example, the historically migratory Miao people have cultivated a resilient wisdom for mountain survival, maintained a strong sense of linguistic preservation, and developed rich folk cultural practices. The Flower Tree Festival is one of the most representative traditional festivals of the Miao ethnic group, usually held from the third to the seventh day of the first lunar month. During the festival, people dress up in their finest clothes and dance and sing around the flower tree, which symbolizes life and reproduction. They sing toasting songs, perform the flower stick dance, and hold the ceremony of circling the flower tree, fully demonstrating their cultural identity and community cohesion (Fig. 1). The Buyi are well-known for their abundant folk arts [34], while the Yi preserve ancient writing systems and classical texts. A key commonality is their long habitation of relatively remote mountainous areas. Constrained by historically isolated transportation and limited modern medical resources, they have heavily relied on easily accessible wild plant resources to tackle health issues. This shared survival strategy and continuous exploration of local flora have enabled each ethnic group to develop systematic indigenous medicinal knowledge within their unique cultural contexts. For instance, the widely recognized saying “Three thousand Miao medicines, eight hundred single-ingredient formulas” reflects to the advanced development of the Miao medical system. However, this precious living knowledge system confronts multiple threats stemming from modernization, urbanization, the exodus of young people, a generational divide among practitioners, and cultural integration, posing challenges to its preservation [35, 36]. Ethnobotany, an interdisciplinary field that examines the relationship between humans and plants, aims primarily to systematically document, interpret, and preserve traditional knowledge, while facilitating its rational dissemination and development.
Fig. 1.
Photographs of ethnic activities in this multi-ethnic convergence zone. A: The Miao ethnic group’s activity of Toasting Song; B: Flower Stick; C: Dance circling around flower trees
Although existing research has documented the medicinal plant knowledge of single ethnic groups in Guizhou (e.g., the Miao and Shui) [37–39], there is still limited understanding of how traditional medicinal knowledge systems are formed in multi-ethnic convergence zones and the factors that drive their internal differences and homogeneity. A key reason for this limitation is that previous studies have largely focused on cataloging resources within individual ethnic groups, but lack systematic and comparative analyses of diverse ethnic communities within the same geographical unit. The comparative analyses are essential for clarifying the relative importance of geographical constraints and cultural transmission in shaping local knowledge. This study integrates qualitative and quantitative ethnobotanical methods to investigate the patterns of traditional medicinal plant knowledge in the multi-ethnic convergence zone of northwest Guizhou, China. Specifically, we aim to: (1) construct a catalogue of local medicinal plant resources and traditional knowledge; (2) use quantitative indices to assess their diversity and cultural significance; and (3) conduct comparative analyses across villages and ethnic groups to characterize the distribution pattern of medicinal plant knowledge, which we hypothesize to exhibit “limited similarity”, and to explore their associations with environmental and cultural factors. By linking systematic documentation with comparative analysis, this work not only contributes to the preservation of this valuable knowledge system but also provides a basis for understanding how biocultural diversity is maintained in multi-ethnic regions. Additionally, the systematic cataloging and quantitative characterization of knowledge patterns in this study provide a foundation for subsequent understanding of the formation mechanism of the traditional medical knowledge system in multi-ethnic convergence areas, as well as the role of the environment and ethnic culture in driving internal differences and homogenization within it.
Materials and methods
Study area
The study area is situated in Anshun City, located in Guizhou Province, China, which is recognized as a region where multiple ethnic groups converge (Fig. 2). The research encompasses nine villages across the Guanling Buyi and Miao Autonomous County, the Zhenning Buyi and Miao Autonomous County, and the Puding County. Supplementary Table S1 provides detailed information for each research site, including geographical names, GPS coordinates, elevation, ecological environment, ethnic groups, languages, number of resident population.
Fig. 2.
Map of the study area
Ethnobotanical information collection
Ethnobotany is commonly employed in resource assessments to conserve the species diversity of medicinal plants, with a particular focus on preserving traditional ethnobotanical knowledge among ethnic minority communities within the study region [40]. Between May and September 2023, nine field surveys were conducted [41], employing key informant interviews, semi-structured interviews, and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods to collect data [42].
This research conducted field investigations in a multi-ethnic settlement area, using purposive sampling to select representative practitioners of ethnic herbal medicine, herbal vendors, and local farmers who have long been engaged in the collection of wild medicinal plants as key informants. Before data collection, respondents were fully informed of the research purpose, content, and use. All information was obtained with informed consent. The questionnaire design focused on three core dimensions: the species names and local common names of wild medicinal plants; the medicinal parts, processing methods, and specific usage methods; traditional efficacy cognition and corresponding therapeutic uses. At the same time, demographic information of the respondents (ethnicity, age, gender, occupation) as well as the longitude, latitude, altitude, and climate characteristics of the survey site were systematically collected.
Specimens were collected based on the time and location where each herb was initially identified during the first-stage survey, with field collection being prioritized. In cases where on-site sampling is truly unfeasible due to constraints, specimens could be purchased from local herbalists or licensed herbal medicine vendors, and the source information was comprehensively documented throughout the entire process. All collection activities were carried out under the guidance of local residents who are well-acquainted with the area’s plant resources and traditional harvesting practices. All the samples were identified by Professor Wu Faming from Zunyi Medical University. Plant species were identified using Flora of China, Flora of Guizhou, Fungi of China, and authoritative online databases (World Flora Online and Index Fungorum). Representative specimens are deposited at the Traditional Chinese Medicine Specimen Museum, Zunyi Medical University.
Data analysis
Ethnobotany employs quantitative techniques to examine how various ethnic groups utilize plants within their communities. In this study, this approach was used to analyze medicinal plant data from the survey area, aiming to clarify the use of wild plants in multi-ethnic regions [43]. Due to the characteristics of empirical, inherited and abstract expression of ethnic medical knowledge, in order to ensure the quality of data, we strictly screened the original survey materials: we excluded the questionnaire items with obvious scientific errors and the records of herbs whose plant sources could not be verified or whose corresponding specimens were not collected; the rest of the information was retained to the greatest extent to maintain the authenticity and integrity of the field investigation results. After the above screening, a total of 103 valid respondents’ information was retained. The demographic characteristics of the respondents, such as age, gender, and occupation, are detailed in Supplementary Table S2. For subsequent analysis, all valid information was entered into an Excel spreadsheet. Specifically, it includes the following aspects of analysis.
Assessment of Diversity and Evenness The Simpson Index (D) was used to evaluate the evenness of medicinal plant information obtained from different village surveys. 
, where D represents the evenness index and Pi is the proportion of informants who reported on plant species i relative to the total number of informants. The Shannon-Wiener Index (H') was applied to measure the richness of medicinal plant information obtained from different village surveys. 
, where Pi is the probability of informant i mentioning the use of a plant species, calculated as 
, with Ni representing the number of informants reporting on plant species i and N denoting the total number of informants in the village.
Evaluation of Cultural Significance To assess the cultural and practical significance of these medicinal plants in local healthcare systems, we applied two complementary quantitative ethnobotanical indices: the Herbal Utilization Frequency (HUF) and the National Cultural Significance Index (NCSI) [44]. The HUF measures how frequently a plant is cited for medicinal use across informants, reflecting its integration into everyday health practices. It is calculated as 
, where, f stands for utilization frequency, Nm is the number of informants who reported medicinal uses, and Ni is the total number of informants surveyed. The NCSI synthesizes seven empirically grounded dimensions: Frequency of Quotation (FQI), Availability Index (AI), Frequency of Utilization (FUI), Parts Used Index (PUI), Multifunctional Use Index (MFI), Curative Effect Index (CEI), and Drug Safety Index (DSI) into a single composite score: 
. All indices were defined, categorized, and scored following standardized protocols from Common Ethnobotanical Research Methods [45]. We assigned values based on established criteria.
Systematic Review of Modern Pharmacological Literature To assess the scientific basis of the documented traditional knowledge, we conducted a systematic review of pharmacological literature for all 200 recorded plant species. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and CNKI using each species’ scientific name combined with terms such as “pharmacology,” “bioactivity,” and “traditional use.” We included peer-reviewed English- or Chinese-language studies reporting pharmacological or clinical data on these species. For each plant, we noted whether modern studies supported traditional uses, addressed different aspects, or were absent.
Comparative Analysis of Knowledge Similarity To characterize the similarity patterns of medicinal plant knowledge and their associations with environmental and cultural contexts, we performed the following analyses: (i) We used the Sorensen similarity index (CS) to quantify the similarity of knowledge between villages and ethnic groups. The calculation formula for CS is 
, where j is the number of shared plant species between group A and group B, a is the total number of plant species reported in group A, and b is the total number of plant species reported in group B. To ensure the rigor of the results, groups that contain fewer than 10 herbal medicines were excluded from the similarity analysis. (ii) We analyzed shared species patterns (the ratio of shared species to endemic species) to characterize the specific manifestations of “limited similarity”. (iii) From an environmental perspective, we conducted a qualitative comparison of the distribution characteristics of CS values in conjunction with the geographical conditions of the villages (such as differences in elevation); (iv) From a cultural perspective, we systematically compared differences in how different ethnic groups use the same plant (e.g., medicinal parts, processing methods, and treated disease), and through cases of “same plant, different uses” and ethnically specific medicinal plants, we aim to reveal the influence of cultural factors on knowledge differences.
Results
Basic information of respondents and community characteristics
The study participants were primarily practitioners of ethnic folk medicine, herbal vendors, and local farmers engaged in the collection of medicinal plants. A total of 103 valid questionnaires were completed in 9 villages (Fig. 2, Table S1), comprising responses from 59 female and 44 male participants (Fig. 3A). The ethnic composition of the respondents was 43 Han, 18 Miao, 15 Buyi, 12 Gelao, 11 Li, 3 Yi, and 1 Bai (Fig. 3B, Table S2). The age range was concentrated between 50 and 80 years old (Fig. 3C). These villages are located at elevations ranging from 800 m to 1480 m. Their primary ecological environment is characterized by an intricately interwoven landscape of karst mountain forests and agricultural terraces. Moreover, the ethnic groups in these villages exhibit a pattern of large-scale cohabitation and small-scale clustering.
Fig. 3.
Basic information about the respondents. A: Percentage of gender; B: Percentage of ethnicity; C: Number of people of different age groups
The diversity of medicinal plants and their utilization characteristics
A total of 200 medicinal materials were collected and identified as belonging to 169 genera and 85 families (Fig. 4; Table 1). The families with the highest number of species were Fabaceae, Orchidaceae, and Rosaceae, with 17, 11, and 10 species, respectively, accounting for 19.00% of the total. Furthermore, there are 47 families in which only one species of plant has been recorded.
Fig. 4.
Part of medicinal plants in multi-ethnic Aareas. A: Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring; B: Drynaria roosii Nakaike. C: Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl; D: Datura stramonium L. E: Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol.; F: Oxalis triangularis ‘Mijke’. G: Bistorta paleacea (Wall. ex Hook. f.) Yonek. & H. Ohashi; H: Morus alba L. I: Curculigo orchioides Gaertn
Table 1.
Ethnobotanical catalogue of traditional medicinal plants in multi-ethnic convergence zone of Anshun, Guizhou Province
| Family name | Genus name | Scientific name | Traditional herbal medicine name in Chinese (in PinYin) | Plant type | Medicinal parts of herbs | Processing method | Usage | Mainly treated diseases | Voucher specimen number |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fabaceae | Euchresta | Euchresta japonica Hook.f. ex Regel | 山豆根 (ShanDouGen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Pain syndrome, diarrhea | ZY-2023-114 |
| Phanera | Phanera championii Benth. | 燕尾草 (YanWeiCao) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine/Stew with chicken | Trauma, menstrual disorders, rheumatism | ZY-2023-016 | |
| Biancaea | Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O.Deg. | 猫爪刺 (MaoZhuaCi) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | External washing: Decoct with water | Inflammation | ZY-2023-180 | |
| Sophora | Sophora flavescens Aiton | 小苦参(布依族话拐督睹)(XiaoKuShen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with chicken/Decoct with water | Headache, abdominal pain | ZY-2023-032 | |
| Glycyrrhiza | Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. | 甘草 (GanCao) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water/Chew | Common cold, dry throat, menstrual disorders | ZY-2023-174 | |
| Fabaceae | Gleditsia | Gleditsia sinensis Lam. | 皂角 (ZhaoJiao) | Woody plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | External washing: Crush and mix with water | Itching in head | ZY-2023-197 |
| Gleditsia | Gleditsia sinensis Lam. | 皂角刺 (ZhaoJiaoCi) | Woody plants | Thorn | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Stew with chicken | Rheumatism | ZY-2023-132 | |
| Mucuna | Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl. | 老洼豆藤(布衣族话高点) (LaoWaDouTeng) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Decoct with water External application: Crush and apply to the affected area |
Trauma, lumbago, fracture | ZY-2023-199 | |
| Mucuna | Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl. | 老洼豆(布依话高点)大血藤种子(LaoWaDouZhongZi) | Liana | Fruit | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water External application: Crush and apply to the affected area |
Rheumatism | ZY-2023-182 | |
| Sophora | Sophora alopecuroides L. | 苦参、大苦参(DaKuShen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with water/Decoct with water External application: Crush and apply to the affected area |
Pain syndrome, inflammation, hematochezia | ZY-2023-033 | |
| Fabaceae | Crotalaria | Crotalaria ferruginea Graham | 响铃草 (XiangLingCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Dizziness, chest pain, and hearing impairment | ZY-2023-068 |
| Spatholobus | Spatholobus suberectus Dunn | 鸡血藤 (JiXueTeng) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Decoct with water/Soak with water | Rheumatism, common cold, arthralgia | ZY-2023-198 | |
| Sophora | Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白刺花花 (BaiCiHuaHua) | Woody plants | Flower | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Inflammation, common cold, rheumatism | ZY-2023-168 | |
| Sophora | Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白刺花根 (BaiCiHuaGen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Typhoid fever, inflammation, fever | ZY-2023-031 | |
| Sophora | Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白刺花刺 (BaiCiHuaCi) | Woody plants | Thorn | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Typhoid fever, inflammation, fever | ZY-2023-083 | |
| Fabaceae | Sophora | Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白花刺籽 (BaiCiHuaZi) | Woody plants | Seed | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Chew | Lithiasis, internal heat syndrome, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-069 |
| Bauhinia | Bauhinia brachycarpa Wall. ex Benth. | 夜关门(YeGuanMen) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine/Soak with water | Arthritis, internal heat syndrome, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-112 | |
| Orchidaceae | Dendrobium | Dendrobium officinale Kimura & Migo | 黄草(HuangCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water/Stew with meat | Liver cirrhosis | ZY-2023-025 |
| Cymbidium | Cymbidium lancifolium Hook. | 兔耳兰 (TuErLan) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat | Dizziness | ZY-2023-143 | |
| Habenaria | Habenaria dentata (Sw.) Schltr. | 铁担子 (TieDanZi) | Herbaceous plants | Stem | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Decoct with water | Lithiasis, inflammation | ZY-2023-098 | |
| Orchidaceae | Gastrodia | Gastrodia elata Blume | 天麻 (TianMa) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Fumigating with sulfur | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Headache, trauma | ZY-2023-048 |
| Bletilla | Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb.f. | 白及 (BaiJi) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying after thorough steaming | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat/Chew | Hemorrhage | ZY-2023-020 | |
| Bulbophyllum | Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. | 果上叶 (GuoShangYe) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoc with water/Soak with Chinese wine/Stew with meat | Lumbus pain, back pain | ZY-2023-135 | |
| Calanthe | Calanthe discolor Lindl. | 九死连环草(JiuSiLianHuanCao) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat/Chew | Abdominal pain, lymphadenopathy | ZY-2023-194 | |
| Herminium | Herminium coiloglossum Schltr. | 双肾草 (ShuangShenCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Chew | Lumbus pain, qi stagnation | ZY-2023-191 | |
| Liparis | Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl. | 见血青 (JianXueQing) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Chew | Hypertension, cerebral thrombosis, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-077 | |
| Orchidaceae | Cymbidium | Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. | 毛草兰 (MaoLanCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Lumbus pain | ZY-2023-030 |
| Nervilia | Nervilia fordii (Hance) Schltr. | 青天葵 (QingTianKui) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat | Pulmonary heat syndrome, cough and dyspnea | ZY-2023-022 | |
| Rosaceae | Agrimonia | Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. | 蛇疙瘩 (SheGeDa) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Diarrhea, hemorrhoids, hemorrhage | ZY-2023-064 |
| Potentilla | Potentilla discolor Bunge | 天星地白 (TianXingDiBai) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Diarrhea | ZY-2023-155 | |
| Potentilla | Potentilla kleiniana Wight & Arn. | 五匹风 (WuPiFeng) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Pediatric common cold, rheumatism | ZY-2023-034 | |
| Geum | Geum aleppicum Jacq. | 兰布正 (BuLanZheng) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Fried with egg | Dizziness | ZY-2023-050 | |
| Rosaceae | Rubus | Rubus coreanus Miq. | 连网刺花 (LianWangCiHua) | Woody plants | Flower | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Physical weakness | ZY-2023-128 |
| Rubus | Rubus coreanus Miq. | 连网刺根 (LianWangCiGen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Typhoid fever, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-126 | |
| Rosa | Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨果 (CiLiGuo) | Woody plants | Fruit | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Chew | Trauma, anorexia, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-193 | |
| Rosa | Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨根 (CiLiGen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine External washing: Decoct with water |
Diabetes mellitus, common cold, inflammation | ZY-2023-187 | |
| Rosa | Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨籽 (CiLiZi) | Woody plants | Seed | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Dyspepsia, qi stagnation | ZY-2023-036 | |
| Rosaceae | Rosa | Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨杆 (CiLiGan) | Woody plants | Stem | Sun-drying | Oral administration or External washing: Decoct with water | Dermatosis | ZY-2023-090 |
| Asteraceae | Taraxacum | Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. | 蒲公英 (PuGongYing) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Fried with egg | Internal heat syndrome, typhoid fever, dizziness | ZY-2023-066 |
| Arctium | Arctium lappa L. | 百倍怡 (BaiBeiYi) | Herbaceous plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Pulmonary tuberculosis | ZY-2023-070 | |
| Carthamus | Carthamus tinctorius L. | 红花 (HongHua) | Herbaceous plants | Flower | Shade-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Decoct with water | Trauma, rheumatism | ZY-2023-023 | |
| Aster | Aster indicus L. | 鱼鳅串 (YuQiuChuan) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Fever, inflammation | ZY-2023-097 | |
| Gerbera | Gerbera piloselloides (L.) Cass. | 猫耳朵 (MaoErDuo) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Inflammation, hemorrhoids, cough | ZY-2023-147 | |
| Asteraceae | Artemisia | Artemisia lactiflora Wall. ex DC. | 白苞蒿 (BaiBaoHao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | External application: Mix with sweet wine | Traumatic injury | ZY-2023-115 |
| Xanthium | Xanthium strumarium L. | 牛虱子 (NiuShiZi) | Herbaceous plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with water/Decoct with water | Rhinitis, nephropathy | ZY-2023-134 | |
| Carpesium | Carpesium abrotanoides L. | 野烟 (YeYan) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Pharyngalgia, malaria | ZY-2023-165 | |
| Senecio | Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don | 九里光 (JiuLiGuang) | Herbaceous plants | Overground part | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water External washing: Decoct with water |
Common cold, rheumatism, dermatosis | ZY-2023-100 | |
| Lamiaceae | Ajuga | Ajuga ciliata Bunge | 散血草 (SanXueCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | External application: Apply powders to the affected area | Hemorrhage, swollen and painful feet | ZY-2023-037 |
| Lamiaceae | Prunella | Prunella vulgaris L. | 夏枯草 (XiaKuCao) | Herbaceous plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Internal heat syndrome, inflammation, hypertension | ZY-2023-039 |
| Perilla | Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton | 紫苏 (ZiSu) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Common cold | ZY-2023-003 | |
| Clerodendrum | Clerodendrum bungei Steud. | 臭牡丹 (ChouMuDan) | Woody plants | Stem | Sun-drying | External washing: Decoct with water | Physical weakness, ulceration | ZY-2023-164 | |
| Leonurus | Leonurus japonicus Houtt. | 益母草 (YiMuCao) | Herbaceous plants | Overground part | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-084 | |
| Clinopodium | Clinopodium chinense (Benth.) Kuntze | 飞疔药 (FeiDingYao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Swelling, pain syndrome | ZY-2023-095 | |
| Polygonaceae | Pleuropterus | Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Nakai | 夜交藤 (YeJiaoTeng) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Inflammation, diarrhea, rheumatism | ZY-2023-085 |
| Polygonaceae | Pleuropterus | Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Nakai | 何首乌 (HeShouWu) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine External washing: Decoct with water |
Arthropathy, treating white hair, diarrhea | ZY-2023-046 |
| Rumex | Rumex crispus L. | 大黄 (DaHuang) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Shade-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine External application: Soak with Chinese wine |
Lumbar spine pain, cervical spine pain, edema | ZY-2023-059 | |
| Reynoutria | Reynoutria japonica Houtt. | 酸汤杆 (SuanTangGan) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Decoct with water | Internal heat syndrome, rheumatism, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-129 | |
| Bistorta | Bistorta paleacea (Wall. ex Hook. f.) Yonek. & H. Ohashi | 地马蜂 (DiMaFeng) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Pediatric diarrhea | ZY-2023-196 | |
| Parogonum | Parogonum cynanchoides (Hemsl.) Desjardins & J.P.Bailey | 胖血藤 (PangXueTeng) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma | ZY-2023-118 | |
| Polygonum | Polygonum aviculare L. | 扁朽 (BianXiu) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Rheumatism, lithiasis | ZY-2023-167 | |
| Ranunculaceae | Anemone | Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. | 虎掌草 (HuZhangCao) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | External application: Apply powders to the affected area | Dyspepsia, lymphadenopathy, cancer | ZY-2023-017 |
| Aconitum | Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux | 乌头 (WuTou) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | External application: Soak with Chinese wine | Limb pain, ulceration, asthma | ZY-2023-103 | |
| Semiaquilegia | Semiaquilegia adoxoides (DC.) Makino | 千年耗子屎 (QianNianHaoZiShi) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine External application: Soak with Chinese wine |
Trauma, corneal ulceration | ZY-2023-120 | |
| Coptis | Coptis chinensis Franch. | 黄连 (HuangLian) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with water External application: Soak with honey |
Hypertension, inflammation | ZY-2023-024 | |
| Anemone | Anemone hupehensis (Lemoine) Lemoine | 野棉花 (YeMianHua) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with Pig’s feet | Cerebral infarction | ZY-2023-144 | |
| Actaea | Actaea cimicifuga L. | 升麻 (ShengMa) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Decoct with water used to wash rice | Gynecological disorders, trauma | ZY-2023-149 | |
| Asparagaceae | Disporopsis | Disporopsis pernyi (Hua) Diels | 易竹(布衣族话拐动怡)(YiZhu) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Decoct with sweet wine External application: Soak with Chinese wine |
Physical weakness, rheumatism, cough | ZY-2023-131 |
| Polygonatum | Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua | 黄姜 (HuangJiang) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with chicken/Decoct with water/Stew with meat | Pulmonary diseases, dizziness, cough | ZY-2023-117 | |
| Ophiopogon | Ophiopogon japonicus (L. f.) Ker Gawl. | 麦冬 (MaiDong) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Lung dryness | ZY-2023-087 | |
| Reineckea | Reineckea carnea (Andrews) Kunth | 观音草 (GuanYinCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Cough, gastralgia, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-038 | |
| Asparagus | Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. | 天门冬 (TianMenDong) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Physical weakness, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-166 | |
| Asparagus | Asparagus filicinus D. Don | 狼井一支蒿 (LangJinYiZhiHao) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Pulmonary tuberculosis | ZY-2023-055 | |
| Asparagaceae | Hosta | Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch. | 玉簪 (YuZan) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with chicken/Decoct with water | Kidney deficiency | ZY-2023-102 |
| Vitaceae | Parthenocissus | Parthenocissus henryana (Hemsl.) Diels & Gilg | 五花血藤 (WuHuaXueTeng) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Lumbago | ZY-2023-142 |
| Causonis | Causonis japonica (Thunb.) Raf. | 母猪藤根 (MuZhuTengGen) | Liana | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Rheumatism, | ZY-2023-133 | |
| Causonis | Causonis japonica (Thunb.) Raf. | 母猪藤 (MuZhuTeng) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Hypertension | ZY-2023-101 | |
| Tetrastigma | Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg | 三叶青根 (SanYeQingGen) | Liana | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Chew | Inflammation, couth, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-062 | |
| Campanulaceae | Adenophora | Adenophora stricta Miq. | 泡参 (PaoShen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Physical weakness | ZY-2023-092 |
| Campanulaceae | Codonopsis | Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. | 奶浆根(布衣族话马发汞)(NaiJiangGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with chicken/Stew with meat | Physical weakness, insufficient lactation | ZY-2023-051 |
| Platycodon | Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC. | 桔梗 (JieGeng) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Pulmonary diseases | ZY-2023-086 | |
| Gesneriaceae | Primulina | Primulina eburnea (Hance) Yin Z.Wang | 岩白菜 (YanBaiCai) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat | Common cold, physical weakness | ZY-2023-011 |
| Dorcoceras | Dorcoceras hygrometricum Bunge | 散其草 (SanQiCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Blood stasis | ZY-2023-124 | |
| Lysionotus | Lysionotus pauciflorus Maxim. | 岩豇豆 (YanJiangDou) | Woody plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Arthralgia, gynecological disorders, diarrhea | ZY-2023-152 | |
| Lardizabalaceae | Akebia | Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. | 木通 (MuTong) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak wiht Chinese wine External washing: Decoct with water |
Trauma, diarrhea, rheumatism | ZY-2023-029 |
| Lardizabalaceae | Akebia | Akebia trifoliata subsp. australis (Diels) T. Shimizu. | 八月瓜 (BaYueGua) | Liana | Fruit | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Chew | Qi stagnation, thirst and fluid depletion | ZY-2023-009 |
| Akebia | Akebia trifoliata subsp. australis (Diels) T. Shimizu. | 八月瓜根 (BaYueGuaGen) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Inflammation, rheumatism, vaginal atrophy | ZY-2023-094 | |
| Apiaceae | Foeniculum | Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | 茴香 (HuiXiang) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Qi stagnation, lumbago | ZY-2023-169 |
| Peucedanum | Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn | 姨妈菜 (YiMaCai) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat/Soak with water | Fever, rheumatism, inflammation | ZY-2023-186 | |
| Centella | Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. | 马蹄菜 (MaTiCai) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water/when eating in hot pot | Dizziness, cancer, urethritis | ZY-2023-012 | |
| Angelica | Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels | 当归 (DangGui) | Woody plants | Root | Fumigating with sulfur | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-006 | |
| Solanaceae | Alkekengi | Alkekengi officinarum var. franchetii (Mast.) R.J.Wang | 红姑娘 (HongGuNiang) | Herbaceous plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-125 |
| Datura | Datura stramonium L. | 曼陀罗 (ManTuoLuo) | Herbaceous plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | External application: Smoking teeth with incense smoke | Dental pain, dental caries | ZY-2023-184 | |
| Solanum | Solanum capsicoides All. | 野辣子 (YeLaZi) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Pulmonary tuberculosis, rheumatism, dental caries | ZY-2023-104 | |
| Nicandra | Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. | 半边风 (BanBianFeng) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine External washing: Decoct with water |
Limb soreness, rheumatism | ZY-2023-005 | |
| Caprifoliaceae | Lonicera | Lonicera japonica Thunb. | 金银花根 (JinYinHuaGen) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Headache and inflammation | ZY-2023-122 |
| Lonicera | Lonicera japonica Thunb. | 金银花藤 (JinYinHuaTeng) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Headache and inflammation | ZY-2023-057 | |
| Caprifoliaceae | Lonicera | Lonicera japonica Thunb. | 金银花 (JinYinHua) | Liana | Flower | Shade-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Inflammation, cough, common cold | ZY-2023-121 |
| Valeriana | Valeriana jatamansi Jones | 蜘蛛香 (ZhiZhuXiang) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Gastralgia, common cold, pulmonary tuberculosis | ZY-2023-073 | |
| Moraceae | Morus | Morus alba L. | 桑皮 (SangPi) | Woody plants | Bark | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine/Soak with water | Gastralgia, inflammation, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-075 |
| Ficus | Ficus tikoua Bureau | 地瓜根 (DiGuaGen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat | Rheumatism, gynecological disorders, inflammation, | ZY-2023-060 | |
| Ficus | Ficus tikoua Bureau | 地瓜藤 (DiGuaTeng) | Woody plants | Stem | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water External washing: Decoct with water |
Diarrhea, ulceration | ZY-2023-045 | |
| Polypodiaceae | Pyrrosia | Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw. | 大石韦 (DaShiWei) | Herbaceous plants | Leaf | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Diarrhea, fever, inflammation | ZY-2023-185 |
| Polypodiaceae | Drynaria | Drynaria roosii Nakaike | 巴山虎 (BaShanHu) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying after removing the fuzz | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat/Soak with water | Fracture, physical weakness, trauma | ZY-2023-119 |
| Microsorum | Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. | 扁担叶 (BianDanYe) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Internal heat syndrome | ZY-2023-093 | |
| Berberidaceae | Berberis | Berberis virgetorum C.K.Schneid. | 刺黄连 (CiHuangLian) | Woody plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Jaundice, common cold | ZY-2023-178 |
| Berberis | Berberis julianae C.K.Schneid. | 三颗针 (SanKeZhen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine/Soak with water | Rheumatism, gastropathy, inflammation | ZY-2023-054 | |
| Dysosma | Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng | 八角莲 (BiaoJiaoLian) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma | ZY-2023-096 | |
| Epimedium | Epimedium brevicornu Maxim. | 淫羊藿 (YinYangHuo) | Herbaceous plants | Overground part | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Kidney deficiency, trauma | ZY-2023-151 | |
| Urticaceae | Urtica | Urtica lotabifolia S. S. Ying | 红豁麻根 (HongHuoMaGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying |
Oral administration: Stew with meat External washing: Decoct with water |
Rheumatism | ZY-2023-044 |
| Girardinia | Girardinia diversifolia subsp. suborbiculata (C. J. Chen) C. J. Chen & Friis | 小豁麻根 (XiaoHuoMaGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Rheumatism | ZY-2023-041 | |
| Girardinia | Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis | 豁麻根(布依族话毒肿们)(HuoMaGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Rheumatism | ZY-2023-183 | |
| Oxalidaceae | Averrhoa | Averrhoa carambola L. | 阳桃根 (YangTaoGen) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Rheumatism | ZY-2023-175 |
| Oxalis | Oxalis triangularis ‘Mijke’ | 紫叶酢浆草 (ZiYeCuJiangCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Shade-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Lumbar spine pain | ZY-2023-146 | |
| Oxalis | Oxalis corniculata L. | 酸咪咪草 (SuanMiMiCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Dyspepsia | ZY-2023-163 | |
| Primulaceae | Ardisia | Ardisia crenata Sims | 八爪金龙 (BaZhuaJinLong) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water/Chew | Inflammation, cough, dental pain | ZY-2023-137 |
| Ardisia | Ardisia pusilla A.DC. | 毛青杠 (MaoQingGang) | Woody plants | Stem | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with Chinese wine | Pain syndrome, rheumatism, traumatic injury | ZY-2023-130 | |
| Lysimachia | Lysimachia christinae Hance | 过路黄 (GuoLuHuang) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Jaundice, pulmonary diseases, common cold | ZY-2023-082 | |
| Apocynaceae | Vincetoxicum | Vincetoxicum atratum (Bunge) C.Morren & Decne. | 羊角根 (YangJiaoGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Gynecological disorders, rheumatism, trauma | ZY-2023-076 |
| Cynanchum | Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight | 隔山消 (GeShanXiao) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water/Chew | Dyspepsia, cervical spine pain | ZY-2023-173 | |
| Periploca | Periploca forrestii Schltr. | 黑骨藤(布衣族话搞饼)( HeiGuTeng) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat/Soak with Chinese wine | Rheumatism, trauma, lumbar disc herniation | ZY-2023-105 | |
| Apocynaceae | Vincetoxicum | Vincetoxicum stauntonii (Decne.) C.Y.Wu & D.Z.Li | 水杨柳 (ShuiYangLiu) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with chicken | Edema, rheumatism | ZY-2023-195 |
| Rubiaceae | Uncaria | Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil. | 金钩莲 (JinGouLian) | Liana | Stem | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Chew | Pharyngalgia | ZY-2023-079 |
| Paederia | Paederia foetida L. | 臭屁藤 (ChouPiTeng) | Liana | Whole plant | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water External washing: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine |
Rheumatism, diarrhea | ZY-2023-040 | |
| Ophioglossaceae | Sceptridium | Sceptridium ternatum (Thunb.) Lyon | 一朵云 (YiDuoYun) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Shade-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Dizziness, pneumonia, cough | ZY-2023-145 |
| Ophioglossum | Ophioglossum vulgatum L. | 一支箭 (YiZhiJian) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-150 | |
| Caryophyllaceae | Stellaria | Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | 大鹅儿肠根 (DaEErChangGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat/Soak with water | Rheumatism, cold stomach, cramps | ZY-2023-179 |
| Caryophyllaceae | Stellaria | Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | 大鹅儿肠 (DaEErChang) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Menstrual disorders | ZY-2023-004 |
| Araceae | Pinellia | Pinellia ternata(Thunb.)Breit. | 麻芋果(布依族话拉爸维)(MaYuGuo) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Rheumatism, gastropathy, trauma | ZY-2023-161 |
| Arisaema | Arisaema heterophyllum Blume | 老蛇包谷 (LaoSheBaoGu) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | External application: Soak with Chinese wine | Swelling-pain, ulceration | ZY-2023-136 | |
| Araliaceae | Hedera | Hedera nepalensis var. sinensis (Tobler) Rehder | 三角枫 (SanJiaoFeng) | Woody plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | External washing: Decoct with water | Rheumatism, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-019 |
| Panax | Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F. H. Chen ex C. H. Chow | 三七 (SanQi) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with Chinese wine | Blocked meridians, poor circulation of qi and blood | ZY-2023-170 | |
| Amaranthaceae | Cyathula | Cyathula officinalis K.C.Kuan | 白牛磕膝 (BaiNiuKeXi) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, knee pain | ZY-2023-176 |
| Amaranthaceae | Achyranthes | Achyranthes bidentata Blume | 红牛磕膝 (HongNiuKeXi) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat/Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, knee pain, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-074 |
| Iridaceae | Crocosmia | Crocosmia crocosmiiflora (Lemoine) N.E.Br. | 雄黄兰 (XiongHuangLan) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Gastric ulcer | ZY-2023-171 |
| Belamcanda | Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redouté | 扁竹黄 (BianZhuHuang) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with water/Decoct with water | Hepatitis | ZY-2023-099 | |
| Asphodelaceae | Aloe | Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. | 芦荟 (LuHui) | Herbaceous plants | Leaf | Sun-drying | External application: Apply to the affected area | Psoriasis | ZY-2023-026 |
| Hemerocallis | Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. | 金针花 (JinZhenHua) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Take powders with sweet wine External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Renal calculi, lymphadenopathy | ZY-2023-021 | |
| Rutaceae | Zanthoxylum | Zanthoxylum dimorphophyllum var. spinifolium Rehder & E.H.Wilson | 见血飞 (JianXueFei) | Woody plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | External application: Soak with Chinese wine | Dermatosis | ZY-2023-113 |
| Rutaceae | Zanthoxylum | Zanthoxylum dimorphophyllum var. spinifolium Rehder & E.H.Wilson | 见血飞籽 (JianXueFeiZi) | Woody plants | Fruit | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with water External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Blocked meridians, poor circulation of qi and blood | ZY-2023-154 |
| Poaceae | Cymbopogon | Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf | 地茅草 (DiMaoCao) | Herbaceous plants | Leaf | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Cough, headache | ZY-2023-162 |
| Zea | Zea mays L. | 玉米须 (YuMiXu) | Herbaceous plants | Flower | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Diabetes mellitus, hypertension | ZY-2023-071 | |
| Cucurbitaceae | Solena | Solena heterophylla Lour. | 耗子瓜 (HaoZiGua) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Inflammation, dyspepsia, lymphadenopathy | ZY-2023-015 |
| Trichosanthes | Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. | 天花 (TianHua) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Rheumatism | ZY-2023-159 | |
| Smilacaceae | Smilax | Smilax japonica (Kunth) A.Gray | 白茯苓 (BaiFuLing) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Gastropathy | ZY-2023-141 |
| Smilacaceae | Smilax | Smilax china var. china | 红土茯苓(布依族话倒帮)(HongTuFuLing) | Woody plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with brown sugar water/Soak with Chinese wine | Tumour, inflammation, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-028 |
| Menispermaceae | Stephania | Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers | 千金藤 (QianJinTeng) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with water/Chew | Diarrhea, common cold | ZY-2023-123 |
| Stephania | Stephania dielsiana Y.C.Wu | 百味莲 (BaiWeiLian) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Gastropathy | ZY-2023-116 | |
| Crassulaceae | Phedimus | Phedimus aizoon (L.) ‘t Hart | 铁指甲 (TieZhiJia) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, gastropathy, typhoid fever | ZY-2023-067 |
| Sedum | Sedum sarmentosum Bunge | 狗牙瓣 (GouYaBan) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Fried with egg/Stew wiht meat | Hypertension, dizziness, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-200 | |
| Meliaceae | Munronia | Munronia unifoliolata Oliv. | 矮陀陀 (AiTuoTuo) | Woody plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Chew | Lumbago, trauma | ZY-2023-177 |
| Meliaceae | Melia | Melia azedarach L. | 苦楝果 (KuLianGuo) | Woody plants | Fruit | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water External washing: Decoct with water |
Rheumatism, inflammation, dermatosis | ZY-2023-106 |
| Lythraceae | Punica | Punica granatum L. | 石榴花 (ShiLiuHua) | Woody plants | Flower | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Cough and dyspnea | ZY-2023-088 |
| Lythrum | Lythrum salicaria L. | 对叶莲 (DuiYeLian) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Gynecological disorders, rheumatism, physical weakness | ZY-2023-138 | |
| Santalaceae | Thesium | Thesium chinense Turcz. | 地石榴 (DiShiLiu) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Gynecological disorders, hemorrhoids | ZY-2023-108 |
| Dioscoreaceae | Dioscorea | Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. | 朱砂连 (ZhuShaLian) | Herbaceous plants | Stem | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Gynecological disorders, podalgia, lumbago | ZY-2023-111 |
| Schisandraceae | Schisandra | Schisandra propinqua subsp. sinensis (Oliver) R. M. K. Saunders | 小血藤 (XiaoXueTeng) | Liana | Rattan | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Trauma, diarrhea, menstrual disorders | ZY-2023-080 |
| Aspleniaceae | Woodwardia | Woodwardia japonica (L.f.) Sm. | 金毛狗 (JianMaoGou) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Kidney deficiency, liver deficiency | ZY-2023-109 |
| Lycopodiaceae | Lycopodium | Lycopodium japonicum Thunb. | 伸筋草 (ShenJinCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat/Soak with Chinese wine | Muscle cramps, rheumatism, trauma | ZY-2023-047 |
| Hypoxidaceae | Curculigo | Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. | 地棕 (DiZong) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-056 |
| Cornaceae | Alangium | Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms | 白金条 (BaiJinTiao) | Woody plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, rheumatism | ZY-2023-189 |
| Balanophoraceae | Balanophora | Balanophora harlandii Hook.f. | 寄生黄 (JiShengHuang) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Hemorrhoids, gastralgia, hemorrhage | ZY-2023-065 |
| Polypodiaceae | Nephrolepis | Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl | 巴螂果 (BaLangGuo) | Herbaceous plants | Stem | Using fresh herb | Oral administration: Chew | Urinary stone | ZY-2023-007 |
| Passifloraceae | Passiflora | Passiflora cupiformis Mast. | 硬纸草(YingZhiCao) | Liana | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Limb pain | ZY-2023-061 |
| Cactaceae | Opuntia | Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. | 仙人掌 (XianRenZhang) | Woody plants | Root | Using fresh herb | Oral administration: Stew with meat | Gastralgia | ZY-2023-190 |
| Typhaceae | Typha | Typha orientalis C.Presl | 毛蜡烛 (MaoLaZhu) | Herbaceous plants | Flower | Sun-drying | External application: Apply powders to the affected area | Hemorrhage | ZY-2023-140 |
| Melastomataceae | Osbeckia | Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don | 朝天罐 (ChaoTianGuan) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Cough, antidiarrheal | ZY-2023-063 |
| Convolvulaceae | Dichondra | Dichondra micrantha Urb. | 仙秀草 (XianXiuCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Fried with egg/Stew wiht meat | Pulmonary diseases, common cold, inflammation | ZY-2023-158 |
| Altingiaceae | Liquidambar | Liquidambar formosana Hance | 路路通 (LuLuTong) | Woody plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with water | Rheumatism | ZY-2023-053 |
| Polygalaceae | Polygala | Polygala japonica Houtt. | 小丁香 (XiaoDingXiang) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Pediatric abdominal coldness | ZY-2023-042 |
| Boraginaceae | Trigonotis | Trigonotis peduncularis (Trevir.) Benth. ex F.B.Forbes & Hemsl. | 地胡椒 (DiHuJjiao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Fried with egg | Gastralgia, physical weakness | ZY-2023-052 |
| Lauraceae | Camphora | Camphora officinarum Boerh. ex Fabr. | 香樟籽 (XiangZhangZi) | Woody plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with water/Chew | Dyspepsia, cerebral thrombosis, abdominal pain | ZY-2023-078 |
| Arecaceae | Trachycarpus | Trachycarpus fortunei (Hook.) H.Wendl. | 棕榈籽 (ZongLvZi) | Woody plants | Fruit | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine/Soak with water | Lithiasis, abdominal pain | ZY-2023-127 |
| Bignoniaceae | Oroxylum | Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz | 千张 (QianZhang) | Woody plants | Seed | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Nephritis, cervical spine pain | ZY-2023-027 |
| Nyctaginaceae | Mirabilis | Mirabilis jalapa L. | 巴及根 (BaJiGen) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with Pig’s feet | Physical weakness, gynecological disorders | ZY-2023-172 |
| Musaceae | Musella | Musella lasiocarpa (Franch.) C.Y.Wu ex H.W.Li | 药芭蕉 (YaoBaJiao) | Herbaceous plants | Flower | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with Pig’s hearts, lungs, and kidneys | Cardiopathy | ZY-2023-001 |
| Stemonaceae | Stemona | Stemona tuberosa Lour. | 对叶百部 (DuiYeBaiBu) | Liana | Root | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Pulmonary tuberculosis | ZY-2023-014 |
| Cupressaceae | Platycladus | Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco | 柏子果 (BaiZiGuo) | Woody plants | Seed Kernel | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with water External application: Soak with water |
Common cold, visual acuity deterioration | ZY-2023-002 |
| Plantaginaceae | Plantago | Plantago asiatica L. | 车前草 (CheQianCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water | Lithiasis, inflammation, common cold | ZY-2023-081 |
| Acoraceae | Acorus | Acorus calamus L. | 水菖蒲 (ShuiChangPu) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | ZY-2023-058 | |
| Aquifoliaceae | Ilex | Ilex triflora Blume | 小洞青 (XiaoDongQing) | Woody plants | Leaf | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Decoct with sweet wine/Soak with Chinese wine | Arthritis, gastropathy | ZY-2023-010 |
| Eucommiaceae | Eucommia | Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. | 杜仲 (DuZhong) | Woody plants | Bark | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Stew with Pig’s feet | Nephritis | ZY-2023-035 |
| Balsaminaceae | Impatiens | Impatiens balsamina L. | 指甲花 (ZhiJiaHua) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Steam wiht meat | Leuconychia | ZY-2023-188 |
| Schizaeaceae | Lygodium | Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. | 乱头发 (LuanTouFa) | Liana | Root/Spore | Roots (sun-drying)/Collecting spores | Oral administration: Stew with meat/Soak with Chinese wine/Decoct with water | Trauma, fever, rheumatism | ZY-2023-072 |
| Buxaceae | Pachysandra | Pachysandra axillaris Franch. | 三只板凳脚 (SanZhiBanDengJiao) | Woody plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Chew External washing: Decoct with water |
Rheumatism, gynecological disorders, chronic pharyngitis | ZY-2023-156 |
| Violaceae | Viola | Viola philippica Cav. | 华口菜 (HuaKouCai) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Internal heat syndrome, physical weakness, trauma | ZY-2023-139 |
| Chloranthaceae | Chloranthus | Chloranthus holostegius (Hand.-Mazz.) C.Pei & San | 四块瓦 (SiKuaiWa) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, rheumatism | ZY-2023-091 |
| Anacardiaceae | Pistacia | Pistacia vera L. | 开心果 (KaiXinGuo) | Woody plants | Seed | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Chew | Anemia, malnutrition | ZY-2023-089 |
| Selaginellaceae | Selaginella | Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring | 九死还魂草 (JiuSiHuanHunCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine | Qi stagnation, lumbar spine pain, arthropathy | ZY-2023-192 |
| Acanthaceae | Peristrophe | Peristrophe japonica (Thunb.) Bremek. | 透骨草 (TouGuCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying |
External application: Soak with Chinese wine External washing: Decoct with water |
Rheumatism, ulceration | ZY-2023-013 |
| Melanthiaceae | Paris | Paris polyphylla Sm. | 独角莲(布衣族话拉动买) (DuJiaoLian) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Take powders with water External application: Soak with Chinese wine/Apply powders to the affected area |
Gastropathy, trauma, inflammation | ZY-2023-181 |
| Verbenaceae | Verbena | Verbena officinalis L. | 马鞭梢 (MaBianShao) | Herbaceous plants | Overground part | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Decoct with water External washing: Decoct with water |
Common cold, inflammation | ZY-2023-043 |
| Begoniaceae | Begonia | Begonia grandis Dryand. | 一口血 (YiKouXue) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | External application: Soak with Chinese wine | Trauma, hemorrhage | ZY-2023-008 |
| Colchicaceae | Disporum | Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr. | 牛尾巴 (NiuWeiBa) | Herbaceous plants | Root | Using fresh herb or sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with water/Stew with meat | Physical weakness, swelling, rheumatism | ZY-2023-107 |
| Loranthaceae | Taxillus | Taxillus sutchuenensis (Lecomte) Danser | 花椒树的寄生茶 (HuaJiaoShuDeJiShengCha) | Woody plants | Stem | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Hyperostosis | ZY-2023-153 |
| Saururaceae | Houttuynia | Houttuynia cordata Thunb. | 鱼腥草 (YuXingCao) | Herbaceous plants | Rhizome | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water | Hepatitis | ZY-2023-148 |
| Gentianaceae | Metagentiana | Metagentiana rhodantha (Franch.) T.N.Ho & S.W.Liu | 龙胆草 (LongDanCao) | Herbaceous plants | Whole plant | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Stew with meat | Diarrhea, cough, inflammation | ZY-2023-049 |
| Loganiaceae | Strychnos | Strychnos nux-vomica L. | 马钱子 (MaQianZi) | Woody plants | Seed | Sun-drying | External application: Soak with Chinese wine | Lumbago | ZY-2023-018 |
| Aristolochiaceae | Aristolochia | Aristolochia debilis Siebold & Zucc. | 青藤香 (QingTengXiang) | Liana | Rattan | Sun-drying | Oral administration: Take powders with water | Abdominal pain, dyspepsia | ZY-2023-157 |
| Torricelliaceae | Torricellia | Torricellia tiliifolia DC. | 半条命 (BanTiaoMing) | Woody plants | Stem | Sun-drying |
Oral administration: Soak with Chinese wine External application: Apply powders to the affected area |
Trauma, fracture | ZY-2023-110 |
| Liliaceae | Lilium | Lilium brownii F. E. Br. ex Miellez | 红瓣 (HongBan) | Herbaceous plants | Bulb | Using fresh herb | Oral administration: Decoct with water/Soak with Chinese wine/Stew with meat | Dyspepsia, cough, rheumatism | ZY-2023-160 |
Surveys showed that most medicinal materials are sourced from wild collection, with only a few commonly used or rare species being cultivated on a small scale near dwellings. This heavy reliance on wild-harvested plants stems from a prevalent belief in their superior efficacy. Additionally, the topographic conditions of the karst mountainous area also affect the ease or difficulty of obtaining different wild resources. For example, Euchresta japonica Hook.f. ex Regel., which mainly grows on cliffs, is difficult to gather and fetches high prices. In contrast, common herbs such as Viola philippica Cav., Verbena officinalis L., Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz., and Plantago asiatica L., are plentiful around villages and readily available.
Analysis of medicinal parts (Fig. 5A; Table 1) indicates that roots are the most frequently used (30.0%), with representative species such as Euchresta japonica and Aster indicus L. Whole plants come next (28.5%), with examples including Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. and Potentilla discolor Bunge. Rhizomes (10.5%, e.g., Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua, Valeriana jatamansi Jones), fruits (7.0%, e.g., Rosa roxburghii Tratt., Prunella vulgaris L.), and stems or rattans (5.0%, e.g., Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil., Phanera championii Benth.) are also commonly utilized.
Fig. 5.
The distribution frequency of the utilized parts and primary processing methods of medicinal plants. A: Medicinal parts; B: Processing methods
In terms of processing methods (Fig. 5B; Table 1), sun-drying was the predominant method of processing medicinal materials, accounting for 79.5% of reported applications, with representative species including such as Geum aleppicum Jacq. and Bistorta paleacea (Wall. ex Hook. f.) Yonek. & H. Ohashi. About 14% can be used fresh or dried, while a small fraction requires shade-drying (2.5%) or is used only fresh (1.5%). Some species exhibit different medicinal properties in fresh versus dried forms, for example, fresh Stellaria media (L.) Vill. is used for rheumatic spasms, while dried Stellaria media is used for gastrointestinal coldness.
Decoction is the most common preparation method, but food-medicine integration is also widespread (48.5%), including stewing with meat, scrambling with eggs, or soaking in Chinese Baijiu. Examples include Berberis julianae C.K.Schneid. soaked in Chinese Baijiu for lumbar pain, corn silk decoction for urinary discomfort, and Stellaria media stewed with meat for rheumatic health. The circulation of medicinal plants in local markets further reflects their integration into daily life. Figure 6 presents some herbal medicine trading stalls in a traditional market, where residents purchase both fresh and dried materials for home use.
Fig. 6.
Field survey and information exchange of medicinal plants at local markets
Disease classification (Fig. 7, Table S3) reveals that 200 plant species are used for treating 103 conditions within 14 categories. Immune and infectious diseases accounted for the highest proportion (39.5%), especially rheumatic disorders, which accounted for the largest share. Digestive system diseases (25.0%), respiratory system diseases (20.5%), and trauma/wound/bleeding diseases (19.0%) were the primary treatment focuses. Many plants demonstrate “multiple therapeutic uses”. For example, Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. can be used for dyspepsia, lymphadenitis, and tumor adjuvant therapy; Polygonatum cyrtonema is utilized to address pulmonary disorders, dizziness, and cough.
Fig. 7.
The main diseases treated by traditional herbal medicine. The numbers behind the columns represent the number of medicinal plant species used for each disease category. The legend shows the names of 14 disease categories
The cultural significance of medicinal plants and their validation by modern pharmacology
In the local area, the medicinal plant species that are most frequently used are Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight (HUF = 0.17), Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. (HUF = 0.16), and Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Nakai (HUF = 0.15) (Fig. 8, Table S4). Additionally, Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb.f., Taraxacum mongolicum, Polygonatum cyrtonema, Vincetoxicum atratum (Bunge) C.Morren & Decne., and Valeriana jatamansi are also the species with relatively high usage frequencies. From the perspective of cultural significance, Taraxacum mongolicum presented the highest NCSI value (700), whereas 21 plants, such as Polygonatum cyrtonema, had NCSI values ranging from 100 to 500, jointly constituting the core resource pool for local medical practices. Notably, species such as Ardisia crenata Sims exhibited significant ethnic specificity, being used more frequently or holding higher cultural importance within the Miao nationality than others.
Fig. 8.
Evaluation of the importance of medicinal plants in the multi-ethnic area. HUF: Herb Utilization Frequency; NCSI: National Cultural Significance Index, NCSI = FQI×AI×FUI×PUI×MFI×CEI×DSI×10− 2. Standardized data visualization is used to present and compare HUF and NCSI across different medicinal plants in the multi-ethnic region
Among the 200 plants, 199 (99.5%) had published pharmacological or clinical research data (Table 2). Among them, the traditional uses of 158 species (82.7%) of medicinal plants have been supported by modern pharmacological research. Multiple core species that are frequently used and culturally significant obtained direct scientific validation: Taraxacum mongolicum (HUF = 0.14, NCSI = 700), widely utilized for anti-inflammatory purposes, shows significant antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties [46]; Polygonatum cyrtonema exhibits pharmacological activities including anti-aging, anti-oxidation, blood sugar reduction, and anti-osteoporosis [47]. Bletilla striata can inhibit bacteria, promote the repair of gastrointestinal mucosa, and combat tumors [48]. Plantago asiatica can enhance immunity and lower blood uric acid [49]. Meanwhile, the analysis indicated that modern pharmacological research focuses on different aspects for 41 species (20.5%) compared to their traditional uses. For example, Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch., traditionally used for Kidney deficiency, is currently mainly studied for anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial [50].
Table 2.
Modern pharmacological effects and chemical composition of traditional herbal medicines
| Scientific name | Traditional herbal medicine name in Chinese (in PinYin) | Modern pharmacological effects | Chemical composition |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dendrobium officinale Kimura & Migo | 黄草(HuangCao) | Antioxidant, anti-aging, immunomodulatory | Polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids |
| Cymbidium lancifolium Hook. | 兔耳兰 (TuErLan) | Emollient | Hexanal, nonanal, heptanal |
| Habenaria dentata (Sw.) Schltr. | 铁担子 (TieDanZi) | Antitussive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Polysaccharides, total saponins, total flavonoids |
| Gastrodia elata Blume | 天麻 (TianMa) | Anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Gastrodin, phenolic glycosides |
| Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Rchb.f. | 白及 (BaiJi) | Anti-inflammatory, bactericidal, antioxidant | Polysaccharides, bibenzyls, phenanthrenes |
| Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. | 果上叶 (GuoShangYe) | Tumor-suppressive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | Polyphenols, volatile components |
| Calanthe discolor Lindl. | 九死连环草(JiuSiLianHuanCao) | Anticoagulant, antitumor | Essential oils, phenanthrenes, alkaloids |
| Herminium coiloglossum Schltr. | 双肾草 (ShuangShenCao) | Immunomodulatory, anti-aging, analgesic | Organic acids, esters, steroids |
| Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl. | 见血青 (JianXueQing) | Hemostatic, antibacterial, analgesic | Alkaloids, flavonoids, amides |
| Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. | 毛草兰 (MaoLanCao) | Lung-moistening, antitussive | - |
| Nervilia fordii (Hance) Schltr. | 青天葵 (QingTianKui) | Analgesic, antitussive, antiviral | Flavonoids, essential oils, terpenoids |
| Euchresta japonica Hook.f. ex Regel | 山豆根 (ShsnDouGen) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective | Alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenes |
| Phanera championii Benth. | 燕尾草 (YanWeiCao) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant | Flavonoids, saccharides, essential oils |
| Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O.Deg. | 猫爪刺 (MaoZhuaCi) | Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antibacterial | Alkaloids, flavonoids |
| Sophora flavescens Aiton | 小苦参(布依族话拐督睹)(XiaoKuShen) | Antiarrhythmic | Flavonoids, alkaloids |
| Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. | 甘草 (GanCao) | Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral | Flavonoids, triterpenoid saponins |
| Gleditsia sinensis Lam. | 皂角 (ZhaoJiao) | Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial | Flavonoids, phenolic acids, triterpenes |
| Gleditsia sinensis Lam. | 皂角刺 (ZhaoJiaoCi) | Antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant | Quercetin, fisetin, kaempferol |
| Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl. | 老洼豆藤(布衣族话高点) (LaoWaDouTeng) | Anti-inflammatory, anti-fatigue, hematinic | Phenols, steroids, coumarins |
| Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl. | 老洼豆(布依话高点)大血藤种子 (LaoWaDouZhongZi) | Nematicidal, wound-healing | L-DOPA |
| Sophora alopecuroides L. | 苦参、大苦参 (DaKuShen) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Matrine, oxysophocarpine |
| Crotalaria ferruginea Graham | 响铃草 (XiangLingCao) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor | Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, isoflavones |
| Spatholobus suberectus Dunn | 鸡血藤 (JiXueTeng) | Antitumor, antiviral | Flavonoids, anthraquinones |
| Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白刺花花 (BaiCiHuaHua) | Anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiulcer | Coumarins, flavonoids |
| Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白刺花根 (BaiCiHuaGen) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitussive | Flavonoids, alkaloids, sterols |
| Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白刺花刺 (BaiCiHuaCi) | Anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antitumor | Alkaloids, flavonoids |
| Sophora davidii Kom. ex Pavol. | 白花刺籽 (BaiCiHuaZi) | Anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antitumor | Alkaloids, flavonoids, organic acids |
| Bauhinia brachycarpa Wall. ex Benth. | 夜关门(YeGuanMen) | Antitussive, antibacterial | Flavonoids, saccharides, essential oils |
| Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. | 蒲公英 (PuGongYing) | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial | Taraxasterol, choline |
| Arctium lappa L. | 百倍怡 (BaiBeiYi) | Anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, vasodilatory | Proteins, amino acids |
| Carthamus tinctorius L. | 红花 (HongHua) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Flavonoids, terpenes |
| Aster indicus L. | 鱼鳅串 (YuQiuChuan) | Antibacterial, antitussive, anti-inflammatory | Rutin, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid |
| Gerbera piloselloides (L.) Cass. | 猫耳朵 (MaoErDuo) | Antibacterial, antitumor, anti-inflammatory | Coumarins, flavonoids |
| Artemisia lactiflora Wall. ex DC. | 白苞蒿 (BaiBaoHao) | Antitumor, antibacterial, antioxidant | Esters, terpenes, essential oils |
| Xanthium strumarium L. | 牛虱子 (NiuShiZi) | Antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Essential oils, fatty acids |
| Carpesium abrotanoides L. | 野烟 (YeYan) | Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antitumor | Sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenes |
| Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don | 九里光 (JiuLiGuang) | Antibacterial, antitumor, antiviral | Sesquiterpenes, diterpenes |
| Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. | 蛇疙瘩 (SheGeDa) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial | Flavonoid glycosides, triterpenes, isocoumarins |
| Potentilla discolor Bunge | 天星地白 (TianXingDiBai) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Flavonoids, glycosides, terpenes |
| Potentilla kleiniana Wight & Arn. | 五匹风 (WuPiFeng) | Hypoglycemic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory | Triterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids |
| Geum aleppicum Jacq. | 兰布正 (BuLanZheng) | Diuretic, anti-inflammatory | Tannins, triterpenes, flavonoids |
| Rubus coreanus Miq. | 连网刺花 (LianWangCiHua) | Antifungal, antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering | Organic acids, polyphenols, tannic acid |
| Rubus coreanus Miq. | 连网刺根 (LianWangCiGen) | Antifungal, antioxidant | Organic acids, polyphenols, tannic acid |
| Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨果 (CiLiGuo) | Antibacterial, antioxidant, immunomodulatory | Phenolic acids, flavonoids |
| Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨根 (CiLiGen) | Antitumor, antioxidant, antibacterial | Total phenols, ellagic acid |
| Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨籽 (CiLiZi) | Anticancer | Fatty acids, amino acids |
| Rosa roxburghii Tratt. | 刺梨杆 (CiLiGan) | Antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antibacterial | Flavonoids, organic acids, polysaccharides |
| Ajuga ciliata Bunge | 散血草 (SanXueCao) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory | Iridoids, diterpenes |
| Prunella vulgaris L. | 夏枯草 (XiaKuCao) | Antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory | Triterpenes, flavonoids, organic acids |
| Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton | 紫苏 (ZiSu) | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial | Essential oils, flavonoids |
| Clerodendrum bungei Steud. | 臭牡丹 (ChouMuDan) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Terpenes, phenylethanoid glycosides, sterols |
| Leonurus japonicus Houtt. | 益母草 (YiMuCao) | Antithrombotic, antihypertensive | Ferulic acid, alkaloids, essential oils |
| Clinopodium chinense (Benth.) Kuntze | 飞疔药 (FeiDingYao) | Hemostatic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial | Triterpenes, saponins, flavonoids |
| Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Nakai | 夜交藤 (YeJjiaoTeng) | Sedative, immunomodulatory | Lipids, water-soluble substances, pectin |
| Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Nakai | 何首乌 (HeShouWu) | Antioxidant, antitumor | Flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic acids |
| Rumex crispus L. | 大黄 (DaHuang) | Hemostatic, blood-activating, anti-inflammatory | Anthrones, anthraquinones |
| Reynoutria japonica Houtt. | 酸汤杆 (SuanTangGan) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral | Polydatin, resveratrol |
| Bistorta paleacea (Wall. ex Hook. f.) Yonek. & H. Ohashi | 地马蜂 (DiMaFeng) | Antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | Gallic acid, flavonoids |
| Parogonum cynanchoides (Hemsl.) Desjardins & J.P.Bailey | 胖血藤 (PangXueTeng) | Antioxidant, antitumor | Stilbene glycosides, anthraquinones, flavonoids |
| Polygonum aviculare L. | 扁朽 (BianXiu) | Antioxidant, anticancer, immunomodulatory | Avicularin, quercitrin, quercetin |
| Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. | 虎掌草 (HuZhangCao) | Antitumor | Betulinic acid, Huzhangoside D |
| Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux | 乌头 (WuTou) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, cardiotonic, antitumor | Aconitine, hypaconitine, mesaconitine |
| Semiaquilegia adoxoides (DC.) Makino | 千年耗子屎 (QianNianHaoZiShi) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic | Lactones, alkaloids |
| Coptis chinensis Franch. | 黄连 (HuangLian) | Antibacterial, antitumor, sedative-hypnotic | Alkaloids, flavonoids |
| Anemone hupehensis (Lemoine) Lemoine | 野棉花 (YeMianHua) | Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal | Essential oils, lactones, glycosides |
| Actaea cimicifuga L. | 升麻 (ShengMa) | Anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor | Triterpenoid saponins, phenolic acids |
| Disporopsis pernyi (Hua) Diels | 易竹(布衣族话拐动怡) (YiZhu) | Antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic | Polysaccharides, flavonoids, glycosides |
| Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua | 黄姜 (HuangJiang) | Immunoenhancing, antioxidant, anti-aging | Steroidal saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids |
| Ophiopogon japonicus (L. f.) Ker Gawl. | 麦冬 (MaiDong) | Antivascular disease, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory | Steroidal saponins, homoisoflavonoids, polysaccharides |
| Reineckea carnea (Andrews) Kunth | 观音草 (GuanYinCao) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Saponins, steroids, lignans |
| Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. | 天门冬 (TianMenDong) | Antitumor, anticancer, anti-inflammatory | Steroidal saponins, C21 steroids, lignans |
| Asparagus filicinus D. Don | 狼井一支蒿 (LangJinYiZhiHao) | Antitumor | Steroidal saponins |
| Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch. | 玉簪 (YuZan) | Antibacterial, antitumor, anti-inflammatory | Flavonoids, steroidal saponins |
| Parthenocissus henryana (Hemsl.) Diels & Gilg | 五花血藤 (WuHuaXueTeng) | Anticancer, antioxidant, anti-aging | Stilbenes |
| Causonis japonica (Thunb.) Raf. | 母猪藤根 (MuZhuTengGen) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral | Flavonoids, sterols |
| Causonis japonica (Thunb.) Raf. | 母猪藤 (MuZhuTeng) | Anticancer, antimicrobial, anticoagulant | Flavonoids, steroids, terpenes |
| Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg | 三叶青根 (SanYeQingGen) | Antitumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | Flavonoids, triterpenes, steroids |
| Adenophora stricta Miq. | 泡参 (PaoShen) | Immunomodulatory, radioprotective, anti-aging | Polysaccharides, coumarins, sterols |
| Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. | 奶浆根(布衣族话马发汞) (NaiJiangGen) | Anticancer, immunoenhancing, sedative | Tangshenoside, flavonoids |
| Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC. | 桔梗 (JieGeng) | Anti-inflammatory, antiasthmatic, anticancer | Phenolic acids, saponins, flavonoids |
| Primulina eburnea (Hance) Yin Z.Wang | 岩白菜 (YanBaiCai) | Antitumor, antibacterial, hypotensive | Phenylethanoid glycosides, quinones, flavonoids |
| Dorcoceras hygrometricum Bunge | 散其草 (SanQiCao) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory | Flavonoid C-glycosides, p-Hydroxyphenethylalcohol, ferulic acid |
| Lysionotus pauciflorus Maxim. | 岩豇豆 (YanJiangDou) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral | Nonacosan-15-ol, triacontanol |
| Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. | 木通 (MuTong) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant | Glycosides, hederasaponin, oleanolic acid |
| Akebia trifoliata subsp. australis (Diels) T. Shimizu. | 八月瓜 (BaYueGua) | Diuretic, antitumor | Saponins |
| Akebia trifoliata subsp. australis (Diels) T. Shimizu. | 八月瓜根 (BaYueGuaGen) | Diuretic, antitumor, anti-inflammatory | Triterpenoid saponins |
| Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | 茴香 (HuiXiang) | Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective | Anethole, anisaldehyde, anisyl ketone |
| Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn | 姨妈菜 (YiMaCai) | Expectorant, antitussive, anti-inflammatory | Coumarins, essential oils, flavonoids |
| Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. | 马蹄菜 (MaTiCai) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Triterpenoid saponins, flavonoids, essential oils |
| Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels | 当归 (DangGui) | Circulation-improving, immunomodulatory, antioxidant | Essential oils, amino acids, flavonoids |
| Alkekengi officinarum var. franchetii (Mast.) R.J.Wang | 红姑娘 (HongGuNiang) | Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial | Steroids, flavonoids, alkaloids |
| Datura stramonium L. | 曼陀罗 (ManTuoLuo) | Anticholinergic, analgesic, sedative | Hyoscyamine, scopolamine, atropine |
| Solanum capsicoides All. | 野辣子 (YeLaZi) | Hypotensive | Steroidal alkaloids, saponins, steroidal saponins |
| Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. | 半边风 (BanBianFeng) | Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer | Nicandrenone, withanicandrin, nicandrin |
| Lonicera japonica Thunb. | 金银花根 (JinYinHuaGen) | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor | Chrysophanol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol |
| Lonicera japonica Thunb. | 金银花藤 (JinYinHuaTeng) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral | Organic acids, flavonoids, triterpenoid saponins |
| Lonicera japonica Thunb. | 金银花 (JinYinHua) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Quercetin, luteolin |
| Valeriana jatamansi Jones | 蜘蛛香 (ZhiZhuXiang) | Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory | Phenolic acids, essential oils, iridoids |
| Morus alba L. | 桑皮 (SangPi) | Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, anti-edema | Mulberroside A, kuwanon G |
| Ficus tikoua Bureau | 地瓜根 (DiGuaGen) | Antioxidant | Isoflavone derivatives |
| Ficus tikoua Bureau | 地瓜藤 (DiGuaTeng) | Antifungal, antirheumatic, antidiarrheal | Pyranoisoflavones |
| Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw. | 大石韦 (DaShiWei) | Vasodilatory, diuretic, anti-inflammatory | Polysaccharides, flavonoids, terpenes |
| Drynaria roosii Nakaike | 巴山虎 (BaShanHu) | Anti-inflammatory, chondrogenic differentiation-promoting, immunomodulatory | Flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids |
| Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. | 扁担叶 (BianDanYe) | Anti-inflammatory | Phenolic acids |
| Berberis virgetorum C.K.Schneid. | 刺黄连 (CiHuangLian) | Antibacterial, antiemetic, antipyretic | Berberine, berbamine |
| Berberis julianae C.K.Schneid. | 三颗针 (SanKeZhen) | Hypotensive, immunomodulatory, hypolipidemic | Berberine hydrochloride, jatrorrhizine, palmatine |
| Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng | 八角莲 (BiaoJiaoLian) | Antitumor, antibacterial, antiviral | Lignans, flavonoids, quinones |
| Epimedium brevicornu Maxim. | 淫羊藿 (YinYangHuo) | Immunomodulatory, cardiovascular function-enhancing | Icariin, flavonoids |
| Urtica lotabifolia S. S. Ying | 红豁麻根 (HongHuoMaGen) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antirheumatic | Flavonoids, lignans, vitamins |
| Girardinia diversifolia subsp. suborbiculata (C. J. Chen) C. J. Chen & Friis | 小豁麻根 (XiaoHuoMaGen) | Antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hypoglycemic | Flavonoids, coumarins, essential oils |
| Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis | 豁麻根(布依族话毒肿们) (HuoMaGen) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, bacteriostatic | Scopolamine, kaempferol |
| Averrhoa carambola L. | 阳桃根 (YangTaoGen) | Hypoglycemic, antirheumatic | Phenols, organic acids, tannins |
| Oxalis triangularis ‘Mijke’ | 紫叶酢浆草 (ZiYeCuJiangCao) | Antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant | Anthocyanins |
| Oxalis corniculata L. | 酸咪咪草 (SuanMiMiCao) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, bacteriostatic | Flavonoids, phenols, phenylpropanoids |
| Ardisia crenata Sims | 八爪金龙 (BaZhuaJinLong) | Antitumor, antiviral, antioxidant | Coumarins, saponins |
| Ardisia pusilla A.DC. | 毛青杠 (MaoQingGang) | Antitumor, anticoagulant | Saponins, bergenin, gallic acid |
| Lysimachia christinae Hance | 过路黄 (GuoLuHuang) | Lithagogue, antitumor | Flavonoids, phenols, polysaccharides |
| Vincetoxicum atratum (Bunge) C.Morren & Decne. | 羊角根 (YangJiaoGen) | Bacteriostatic, antiviral, antitumor | C2 steroidal saponins, acetophenones |
| Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight | 隔山消 (GeShanXiao) | Promoting digestion and absorption | C21 steroids, acetophenones |
| Periploca forrestii Schltr. | 黑骨藤(布衣族话搞饼)(HeiGuTeng) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant | Quinones, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids |
| Vincetoxicum stauntonii (Decne.) C.Y.Wu & D.Z.Li | 水杨柳 (ShuiYangLiu) | Analgesic, antipyretic | Aleuritic acid |
| Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil. | 金钩莲 (JinGouLian) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, sedative | Alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids |
| Paederia foetida L. | 臭屁藤 (ChouPiTeng) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial | Iridoid glycosides |
| Sceptridium ternatum (Thunb.) Lyon | 一朵云 (YiDuoYun) | Anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antitussive | Flavonoids, polysaccharides, luteolin |
| Ophioglossum vulgatum L. | 一支箭 (YiZhiJian) | Blood stasis-dispersing, hemostatic | β-Sitosterol |
| Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | 大鹅儿肠根 (DaEErChangGen) | Hypolipidemic, hypotensive | Saponins, phenolic acids, linolenic acid esters |
| Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | 大鹅儿肠 (DaEErChang) | Hypolipidemic, hypotensive | Saponins, phenolic acids, linolenic acid esters |
| Pinellia ternata(Thunb.)Breit. | 麻芋果(布依族话拉爸维)(MaYuGuo) | Antiulcer, antitumor, hypolipidemic | Alkaloids, essential oils |
| Arisaema heterophyllum Blume | 老蛇包谷 (LaoSheBaoGu) | Anticoagulant, anticonvulsant, analgesic | Alkaloids, flavonoids |
| Hedera nepalensis var. sinensis (Tobler) Rehder | 三角枫 (SanJiaoFeng) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Phenolic acids, flavonoids, saponins |
| Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F. H. Chen ex C. H. Chow | 三七 (SanQi) | Antihypertensive, anticancer, hepatoprotective | Saponins, flavonoids, essential oils |
| Cyathula officinalis K.C.Kuan | 白牛磕膝 (BaiNiuKeXi) | Hypotensive, analgesic, immunomodulatory | Polysaccharides, cyasterone |
| Achyranthes bidentata Blume | 红牛磕膝 (HongNiuKeXi) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-osteoporotic | Polysaccharides, saponins, ecdysterone |
| Crocosmia crocosmiiflora (Lemoine) N.E.Br. | 雄黄兰 (XiongHuangLan) | Antidiarrheal, fertility-promoting | triterpenoid saponins |
| Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redouté | 扁竹黄 (BianZhuHuang) | Antibacterial, antitumor, immunomodulatory | Triterpenes, isoflavones |
| Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. | 芦荟 (LuHui) | Antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory | Anthraquinones, chromones, terpenes |
| Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. | 金针花 (JinZhenHua) | Sedative-hypnotic, antidepressant, antioxidant | Anthraquinones, lactam derivatives, glycosides |
| Zanthoxylum dimorphophyllum var. spinifolium Rehder & E.H.Wilson | 见血飞 (JianXueFei) | Antifibrotic, hemostatic, antiarrhythmic | Coumarins |
| Zanthoxylum dimorphophyllum var. spinifolium Rehder & E.H.Wilson | 见血飞籽 (JianXueFeiZi) | Anti-inflammatory, bactericidal, antitumor | Coumarins, alkaloids |
| Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf | 地茅草 (DiMaoCao) | Antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer | Geranial, neral, geraniol |
| Zea mays L. | 玉米须 (YuMiXu) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant | Polysaccharides, polyphenols, flavonoids |
| Solena heterophylla Lour. | 耗子瓜 (HaoZiGua) | Analgesic, antipyretic, antimalarial | Coumarins, flavonoids |
| Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. | 天花 (TianHua) | Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antiulcer | Flavonoids, amino acids, proteins |
| Smilax japonica (Kunth) A.Gray | 白茯苓 (BaiFuLing) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral | Flavonoids, saponins |
| Smilax china var. china | 红土茯苓(布依族话倒帮)(HongTuFuLing) | Antibacterial, antitumor | Steroidal saponins, flavonoids, flavonoid glycosides |
| Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers | 千金藤 (QianJinTeng) | Anti-inflammatory, antitumor | Alkaloids |
| Stephania dielsiana Y.C.Wu | 百味莲 (BaiWeiLian) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypolipidemic | Sterols, flavonoids, alcohols |
| Phedimus aizoon (L.) ‘t Hart | 铁指甲 (TieZhiJia) | Anti-hypoxic, anti-aging, anti-fatigue | Saccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids |
| Sedum sarmentosum Bunge | 狗牙瓣 (GouYaBan) | Hepatoprotective, antitumor, antifibrotic | Flavonoids, alkaloids |
| Munronia unifoliolata Oliv. | 矮陀陀 (AiTuoTuo) | Antitumor, analgesic, anti-inflammatory | Limonoid derivatives |
| Melia azedarach L. | 苦楝果 (KuLianGuo) | Bacteriostatic, insecticidal | Limonoids, phenolic acids |
| Punica granatum L. | 石榴花 (ShiLiuHua) | Anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, bacteriostatic | Polysaccharides, polyphenols |
| Lythrum salicaria L. | 对叶莲 (DuiYeLian) | Antidiarrheal, antibacterial, antioxidant | Polysaccharides, phenols, flavonoids |
| Thesium chinense Turcz. | 地石榴 (DiShiLiu) | Anti-inflammatory, bacteriostatic, immunomodulatory | Flavonoids, organic acids |
| Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. | 朱砂连 (ZhuShaLian) | Bacteriostatic, hemostatic, analgesic | Condensed tannins, polysaccharides |
| Schisandra propinqua subsp. sinensis (Oliver) R. M. K. Saunders | 小血藤 (XiaoXueTeng) | Antioxidant, antitumor | Lignans, triterpenes |
| Woodwardia japonica (L.f.) Sm. | 金毛狗 (JianMaoGou) | Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic | Polysaccharides, glycosides, essential oils |
| Lycopodium japonicum Thunb. | 伸筋草 (ShenJinCao) | Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, analgesic | Lycopodine, Clavatine |
| Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. | 地棕 (DiZong) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-osteoporotic | Phenolic compounds, curculigosides |
| Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms | 白金条 (BaiJinTiao) | Anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial | Alkaloids, glycosides, organic acids |
| Balanophora harlandii Hook.f. | 寄生黄 (JiShengHuang) | Antitumor, hypoglycemic, bacteriostatic | Triterpenes, flavonoids |
| Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl | 巴螂果 (BaLangGuo) | Detoxifying, hemostatic, lithagogue | Flavonoids, phenols |
| Passiflora cupiformis Mast. | 硬纸草(YingZhiCao) | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | Flavonoids, rutin, apigenin |
| Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. | 仙人掌 (XianRenZhang) | Hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory | Fiber, minerals |
| Typha orientalis C.Presl | 毛蜡烛 (MaoLaZhu) | Circulation-improving, cytoprotective | Quercetin, flavonoid glycosides, isorhamnetin |
| Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don | 朝天罐 (ChaoTianGuan) | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor | Phenols |
| Dichondra micrantha Urb. | 仙秀草 (XianXiuCao) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Flavonoids, essential oils |
| Liquidambar formosana Hance | 路路通 (LuLuTong) | Antioxidant, immune-enhancing, hypotensive | Essential oils, terpenes, flavonoids |
| Polygala japonica Houtt. | 小丁香 (XiaoDingXiang) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Saponins, flavonoids |
| Trigonotis peduncularis (Trevir.) Benth. ex F.B.Forbes & Hemsl. | 地胡椒 (DiHuJjiao) | Antioxidant, antitumor | Flavonoids, phenylpropanoids |
| Camphora officinarum Boerh. ex Fabr. | 香樟籽 (XiangZhangZi) | Antithrombotic, anti-atherosclerotic, antitumor | Essential oils, flavonoids, lignans |
| Trachycarpus fortunei (Hook.) H.Wendl. | 棕榈籽 (ZongLvZi) | Hemostatic, antioxidant, lithagogue | Polyphenols, condensed tannins |
| Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz | 千张 (QianZhang) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic | Flavonoids, glycosides |
| Mirabilis jalapa L. | 巴及根 (BaJiGen) | Anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral | Betacyanins, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol |
| Musella lasiocarpa (Franch.) C.Y.Wu ex H.W.Li | 药芭蕉 (YaoBaJiao) | Hemostatic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial | Diarylheptanoids, lipids |
| Stemona tuberosa Lour. | 对叶百部 (DuiYeBaiBu) | Insecticidal, antitumor, antibacterial | Alkaloids, dehydrobenzofuranols |
| Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco | 柏子果 (BaiZiGuo) | Sedative, hypnotic, anticancer | Flavonoids, essential oils, terpenes |
| Plantago asiatica L. | 车前草 (CheQianCao) | Diuretic, expectorant, antibacterial | Aucubin, plantainoside |
| Acorus calamus L. | 水菖蒲 (ShuiChangPu) | Antibacterial, insecticidal, central nervous system-protective | Sesquiterpenes, alkaloids, fatty acids |
| Ilex triflora Blume | 小洞青 (XiaoDongQing) | - | |
| Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. | 杜仲 (DuZhong) | Anti-osteoporotic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive | Lignans, iridoids, flavonoids |
| Impatiens balsamina L. | 指甲花 (ZhiJiaHua) | Anti-infective, analgesic, anti-inflammatory | Flavonoids, naphthoquinones, anthocyanins |
| Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. | 乱头发 (LuanTouFa) | Choleretic, antioxidant, lithagogue | Flavonoids, phenolic acids, saccharides |
| Pachysandra axillaris Franch. | 三只板凳脚 (SanZhiBanDengJiao) | Antitumor, antiulcer, antibacterial | Alkaloids, triterpenes, steroids |
| Viola philippica Cav. | 华口菜 (HuaKouCai) | Bacteriostatic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral | Flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids |
| Chloranthus holostegius (Hand.-Mazz.) C.Pei & San | 四块瓦 (SiKuaiWa) | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant | Flavonoids, sesquiterpenes |
| Pistacia vera L. | 开心果 (KaiXinGuo) | Immunomodulatory | Proteins, fats, minerals |
| Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring | 九死还魂草 (JiuSiHuanHunCao) | Anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant | Flavonoids, biflavonoids |
| Peristrophe japonica (Thunb.) Bremek. | 透骨草 (TouGuCao) | Hepatoprotective, hypotensive | Flavonoids, alkaloids, organic acids |
| Paris polyphylla Sm. | 独角莲(布衣族话拉动买) (DuJiaoLian) | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Saponins, sterols, ecdysterones |
| Verbena officinalis L. | 马鞭梢 (MaBianShao) | Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, immunomodulatory | Flavonoids, iridoids, phenylethanoid glycosides |
| Begonia grandis Dryand. | 一口血 (YiKouXue) | Bacteriostatic, antiviral, analgesic | Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, tannins |
| Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr. | 牛尾巴 (NiuWeiBa) | Antirheumatic, antitussive | Flavonoids, steroids, fatty acids |
| Taxillus sutchuenensis (Lecomte) Danser | 花椒树的寄生茶 (HuaJiaoShuDeJiShengCha) | Hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | Flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenes |
| Houttuynia cordata Thunb. | 鱼腥草 (YuXingCao) | Anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial | Essential oils, flavonoids, alkaloids |
| Metagentiana rhodantha (Franch.) T.N.Ho & S.W.Liu | 龙胆草 (LongDanCao) | Bacteriostatic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant | Iridoids, xanthones, flavonoids |
| Strychnos nux-vomica L. | 马钱子 (MaQianZi) | Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, immunomodulatory | Alkaloids, iridoid glycosides, flavonoid glycosides |
| Aristolochia debilis Siebold & Zucc. | 青藤香 (QingTengXiang) | Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic | Cycleanine, isochondrodendrine |
| Torricellia tiliifolia DC. | 半条命 (BanTiaoMing) | Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitubercular | Flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids |
| Lilium brownii F. E. Br. ex Miellez | 红瓣 (HongBan) | Antibacterial, immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic | Polysaccharides, alkaloids, polyphenols |
Analysis of the similarities and differences of medicinal plant knowledge
Concerning the internal structure of knowledge, Shannon-Wiener indices (H': 3.23 ~ 3.59) and Simpson indices (D: 0.0091 ~ 0.0186) suggest that the medicinal plant species known and utilized by villages and ethnic groups are not only plentiful but also show a relatively uniform distribution in local recognition and usage frequency (Fig. 9A, B, Table S5).
Fig. 9.
Evenness, richness, and similarity of medicinal plant knowledge across villages and ethnic groups. A: Medicinal plant richness (Shannon-Wiener Index, H'); B: Evenness of medicinal plant knowledge (Simpson Index, D); C: Similarity of plant knowledge between villages; D: Similarity of plant knowledge between ethnic groups. Higher CS values indicate more shared medicinal plant use, while lower values indicate fewer shared species. The numbers in the outer circles of A and B, and on C’s axis, are village codes: 1 to 9 for Huangguoshu, Liuma, HuaJiang, Yongning, Broken Bridge, Gangwu, Shangguan, Maguan, and Pingshang. The inner circle numbers in A and B represent Shannon and Simpson index values
At the village level, all pairwise comparisons between villages resulted in CS values ranging from 0.19 to 0.60 (Fig. 9C, Table S6). Approximately 94% of village pairs had CS values below 0.5. Specifically, among all 200 recorded plant species, only 45 (22.5%) were shared across five or more villages. These species included the widely distributed Taraxacum mongolicum, the medicinal and edible Polygonatum cyrtonema, and the common Plantago asiatica. In contrast, more than half (109 species, 54.5%) appeared in records from only one or two villages. Further analysis of the geographical location and environment of the investigation points reveals that the CS values between villages may closely correlate with geographical conditions. For example, Villages 4 and 6, both situated in Guanling County, have a CS value of 0.23, which indicates low similarity. The elevation difference between these two villages is around 470 m. Villages 6 and 8, although having similar elevations, show differences in microhabitats (differences in water conditions) (Table S1).
At the ethnic group level, the range of knowledge similarity indices between different ethnic groups was from 0.31 to 0.62 (Fig. 9D, Table S7). Among the 200 species, 41 were used in the same manner and for the same indications across ethnic groups. 81 species had significant differences in usage, medicinal parts, and disease treatments (Table S8). For instance, the Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl. is decocted to treat gynecological ailments in the Miao nationality, while the Gelao people chew it to address hypertension. The Crotalaria ferruginea Graham is used by the Gelao nationality to relieve dizziness and chest pain, while the Yi nationality employs it for treating hearing impairment. The remaining 78 species were only recorded in the records of one ethnic group. For example, only the Miao people use Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz soaked in Chinese Baijiu to treat nephritis, and only the Buyi people use Begonia grandis Dryand. through an external application to stop bleeding.
Discussion
The richness and utilization characteristics of medicinal plant resources in the study area
This study recorded 200 medicinal plant species in 85 families and 169 genera. The most species-rich families were Fabaceae (17 species), Orchidaceae (11 species), and Rosaceae (10 species). In contrast, 47 families included only one recorded species each, reflecting broad family distribution and high phylogenetic diversity. Species composition overlaps with other ethnobotanical surveys in Guizhou but maintains local distinctiveness. For example, a Dong community survey in Kaili documented 111 species, mainly Apiaceae, Asteraceae, and Araceae [51]. Only 43 species are shared with our study, such as Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw., Oxalis corniculata L., and Centella asiatica (L.) Urb., which are widespread in southwest China. These species form the regional medicinal plant resource pool. Fabaceae and Orchidaceae are more abundant here than in Kaili, with many species found only in this area, such as Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. and Bletilla striata. This difference may result from the regions’ different geographical environments. According to data from local government yearbooks (2022–2024): Anshun has a semi-humid northern subtropical plateau monsoon climate, with an average annual temperature of about 14.7℃ and annual precipitation of about 1707.8 mm. Kaili has a semi-humid middle subtropical monsoon climate, an average annual temperature of about 17.5℃, and precipitation of about 1482.3 mm. Anshun is at the bottom of the central Guizhou plateau basin, with karst peak clusters and depressions. Kaili features complex karst erosion and deformation belts [52–54]. These conditions create ecological niches for leguminous plants (tolerant to poor, calcareous soils and able to fix nitrogen) and orchidaceae (mostly epiphytic or terrestrial, relying on specific micro-environments), influencing local medicinal plant diversity.
Roots (30.0%) and whole plants (28.5%) are the two most frequently utilized parts, probably closely associated with resource availability. Root medicinal materials mainly come from perennial plants (e.g., Euchresta japonica and Aster indicus), are easy to transport, and for long-term storage. Whole plant medicinal materials (e.g., Agrimonia pilosa, Potentilla discolor) dominate grassroots healthcare because of their widespread distribution, abundant aerial parts, short harvesting cycles, and ease of collection. This pragmatic strategy of “adapting to local conditions and utilizing locally available resources” not only reflects the ecological adaptability and wisdom of various ethnic groups but also illustrates the influence of resource accessibility on the formation and transmission of traditional knowledge structures. Sun-drying (79.5%) is the dominant processing method. Because it is simple, low-cost, and ensures stable medicinal efficacy and long-term preservation by gently inhibiting enzymes and microbes [55]. Additionally, the practice of integrating medicinal ingredients into daily meals (such as stewing with meat, scrambling with eggs) serves not only as a means of nutritional supplementation but also as a preventive health strategy under conditions of limited medical resources.
Analysis of the disease spectrum indicates that 200 plant species treat 103 conditions across 14 categories. Immune and infectious diseases account for the largest share (39.5%), with rheumatic diseases most prominent. This phenomenon is likely due to the region’s humid, rainy climate and residents’ physically demanding lifestyles. It matches findings from neighboring Yunnan and Sichuan provinces, which share similar climates [56–59]. The high incidence of rheumatic diseases and their dominant status in the medication spectrum deeply reflect the adaptation of traditional medical knowledge in response to the local ecological environment and livelihood patterns.
Core species and cultural significance: comprehensive insights based on quantitative ethnobotany
This study used the Shannon index (H': 3.23–3.59) and Simpson’s index (D: 0.0091–0.0186) to show that medicinal plant knowledge in the study areas is both species-rich and evenly distributed across villages and ethnic groups. This suggests that local knowledge systems do not heavily depend on a few “universal” species; rather, they are established on a broad basis of plant resources. From an ecological viewpoint, this structure aids in reducing the risk of knowledge gaps resulting from environmental changes, resource fluctuations, or the decline of key species [60]. Further analysis using Herbal Use Frequency (HUF) and National Cultural Significance Index (NCSI) revealed two core species types: ⅰ) “iconic species” with strong cultural identity and stable intergenerational transmission—e.g., Taraxacum mongolicum (NCSI = 700, HUF = 0.14); and ⅱ) “backbone species” with wide practical use and species with NCSI values rage 100 to 500, including Polygonatum cyrtonema (HUF = 0.14), Cynanchum auriculatum (HUF = 0.17), Lygodium japonicum (HUF = 0.16), Pleuropterus multiflorus (HUF = 0.15). Collectively, these two types of species form the main framework and resource foundation of the local traditional medical knowledge system.
Modern pharmacological research supports the traditional uses of 158 out of 200 medicinal plant species (79%). This supports the reliability and practical efficacy of traditional empirical knowledge. The remaining 41 species (20.5%) show divergence between traditional use and current research focus. For example, Hosta plantaginea, traditionally used for kidney deficiency, is now primarily studied for its antibacterial, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory properties [50]. This discrepancy does not reflect errors in traditional knowledge but stems from: (i) differing disease frameworks—traditional medicine emphasizes holistic functional states (“pattern differentiation”), while modern research targets specific diseases or molecules [61]; (ii) research bias—prioritization of high-interest areas (e.g., anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory) leaves other traditional applications under-explored [62]; and (iii) inherent multi-target complexity of plant compounds—traditional use and modern findings may reflect different facets of the same pharmacological potential [63]. Thus, these 41 species represent not inaccuracies but valuable opportunities for targeted phytochemical and pharmacological investigation.
In addition, this study also observed the phenomenon that the same plant exhibits different effects due to different processing methods. For instance, fresh Stellaria media treats rheumatic spasms, while dried herb addresses stomach and intestinal cold. Prior research shows drying significantly changes plant chemistry: fresh vs. dried Dendrobium nobile differ in 23 components, with higher dendrobine and total alkaloid levels in the fresh form; phenolic acid content in Salvia miltiorrhiza rises with faster dehydration [64, 65]. Such changes in secondary metabolites shift pharmacological activity. Though no direct studies on Stellaria media exist, established phytochemical principles support our findings.
The comprehensive analysis, grounded in quantitative ethnobotanical assessments and pharmacological validation, reveals that traditional knowledge is not merely a rich cultural system but also a veritable treasure of knowledge boasting substantial practical value. Species that demonstrate both a high frequency of usage and high cultural significance and have undergone preliminary pharmacological validation (e.g., Taraxacum mongolicum and Polygonatum cyrtonema) ought to be prioritized for sustainable utilization and deeper research. Meanwhile, for species with traditional uses that differ from modern research findings, as well as those with varying efficacy due to different processing methods, it is necessary to carry out targeted phytochemical and pharmacological studies to reveal their material basis and mechanism of action.
The dual influence of environment and culture shapes the “limited similarity” of medicinal plant knowledge among different regions and ethnic groups
Sorensen similarity indexes (CS) were all at a medium to low level, indicating “limited similarity” in medicinal plant knowledge across villages and ethnic groups. Species sharing analysis further validates the “limited similarity” pattern: only 45 of 200 species (22.5%) occurred in ≥ 5 villages, forming a core shared resource for cross-regional healthcare, while 109 species (54.5%) appeared in just one or two villages, reflecting localized knowledge.
From an environmental perspective, variations in medicinal knowledge are likely to have a correlation with geographical conditions. For instance, the CS value of Village 4 and Village 6, both located in Guanling County, was only 0.23, significantly lower than the average of the study area. This might be due to the 470-meter altitude difference between the two villages. This aligns with the “altitudinal gradient effect”: elevation-driven shifts in vegetation influence how locals recognize and use medicinal plants [66]. Similarly, Village 6 and Village 8 have similar elevations but divergent medicinal knowledge due to differing moisture conditions, highlighting microhabitat as another key driver. Overall, geographical variation plays a role in medicinal knowledge differentiation.
Ethnic cultures critically shape how knowledge is interpreted and applied. The comparative analysis of knowledge among different ethnic groups in this study shows that 41 species of plants are used in the same way among various ethnic groups, forming a shared cross-ethnic knowledge base. A total of 81 plant species (40.5%) show differences in usage (medicinal parts, processing methods, or treated conditions) among different ethnic groups, forming numerous instances of “same plant, different uses.” This multi-purpose usage reflects deliberate, experience-based adaptations to resource-limited settings, aiming to unlock multiple health benefits from a single species. Meanwhile, 78 plant species are used by only one ethnic group (within this study), indicating potential ethnic specificity; their distribution and actual use require further verification. This “core shared + peripheral unique” structure strengthens grassroots public health resilience while safeguarding ethnic cultural diversity.
Similarly, among the 43 shared species with the Dong ethnic group in Kaili, 14 species showed consistent uses across the two regions (e.g., Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl) [51], representing a cross-regional and cross-ethnic group consensus on the medicinal properties of these plants. In contrast, 29 species exhibited divergent therapeutic applications. For instance, Reineckea carnea (Andrews) Kunth was used in our study area for cough, stomach pain, and gynecological ailments, whereas in Kaili, it was used for bone hyperplasia; Polygala japonica Houtt. was used locally for abdominal cold in children, whereas in Kaili it was employed to clear heat and detoxify. This further demonstrates the localized and ethnically specific nature of traditional knowledge. Beyond therapeutic applications, 17 species exhibited differences in the parts used. For example, Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw. was used as the leaf in our study area, but as the whole plant in Kaili; Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn was used as the root in our study area, but as the whole plant in Kaili. These differences suggest that while the same plant resources are available across regions, local health priorities and cultural interpretations shape their specific applications. In conclusion, when interpreting “limited similarity” from the perspective of ethnic culture, it stems from the shared medicinal plant resources, while different cultural perceptions, practical preferences, and concepts of disease lead to distinct choices and interpretations of these resources among different ethnic groups. Ultimately, a knowledge ecosystem characterized by resource sharing and diverse utilization is formed. This finding is in line with the theoretical frameworks in the field of bio-cultural diversity, which state that biodiversity itself provides the material basis for cultural diversity, while culture endows biological resources with meaning and value [67].
Based on the “limited similarity” of traditional knowledge, differentiated intervention strategies are proposed for the sustainable utilization and protection practices of resources. For the widely distributed core shared species, establishing sustainable harvesting standards and promoting ecological cultivation can be effective conservation approaches. For species associated with highly localized endemic knowledge and ethnic specific uses (78 species), detailed community documentation and in-situ conservation efforts are essential. The conservation strategies should fully take into account the spatial characteristics and cultural affiliations of knowledge distribution, avoiding a “one size fits all” management approach.
Research limitations and future directions
This study has several limitations that need to be addressed in future research: (i) The ethnic representation was not balanced. For example, of 103 respondents from 9 villages, there were 43 Han respondents, while there was only 1 Bai respondent, resulting in a marked disparity in number of documented plant species (199 vs. 7). This imbalance impedes robust characterization of Bai traditional knowledge and undermines the validity of cross-ethnic comparisons; thus, Bai data were excluded from Sorenson Similarity Index calculations for preserving analytical rigor. (ii) Although environmental factors (e.g., altitude, microhabitat) appeared linked to knowledge variation, we did not systematically collect or quantitatively analyze variables like altitude, precipitation, or temperature, so claims about “environment driving” remain speculative, lacking statistical support. (iii) Respondents were predominantly aged 50 ~ 80, signaling that traditional medical knowledge is largely held by older generations and raising concerns about inter-generational transmission gaps. Yet we did not assess transmission rates, younger-generation knowledge acquisition, or shifts in transmission methods. Moreover, we did not take covariates such as education, occupation, or residence type into account. In-depth exploration of these issues requires specialized quantitative research designs such as structured questionnaires, stratified sampling, and inter-generational comparisons. (iv) The pharmacological verification of the traditional uses of 158 plant species is still limited to literature reviews and has not yet been experimentally verified. Among them, some key species with high use frequency and culture value, particularly those with potential clinical applications, lack empirical support from in vivo or in vitro studies. Moreover, for 41 species with traditional uses that differ from modern research focuses, their active components and mechanisms of action remain to be further explored.
To address these limitations, future research should: (i) Broaden and deepen field surveys, especially among ethnic minorities like the Bai, to improve regional representativeness and cultural diversity, correcting current sampling imbalances. (ii) Develop a quantitative, multi-dimensional framework to assess how natural factors (e.g., altitude, temperature, precipitation, vegetation) and cultural factors (e.g., ethnic medical theories, knowledge transmission modes, application practices) jointly shape variation in traditional medicinal plant knowledge. (iii) Conduct inter-generational tracking studies to map inheritance pathways, identify key transmission drivers, and dynamically monitor knowledge preservation, adaptation, or loss. (iv) Prioritize understudied species with high cultural value, particularly those whose traditional uses diverge significantly from modern pharmacological findings, and integrate ethnobotanical records, phytochemical profiling, and in vitro/in vivo validation. (v) We recommend building a structured, searchable, and scalable “Digital Knowledge Base of Ethnic Medicinal Plants” by integrating traditional knowledge, field images, specimens, chemical data, and pharmacological evidence, for supporting dynamic conservation and cross-disciplinary innovation.
Conclusion
This study systematically documented the medicinal plant knowledge of a multi-ethnic region in Midwest Guizhou, recording 200 species across 85 families. As shown by the Shannon-Wiener (3.23 to 3.59) and Simpson (0.0091 to 0.0186) indices, local knowledge is characterized by high internal diversity and evenness, forming a resilient healthcare foundation that does not rely on a few dominant species. Quantitative indices identified a core set of culturally significant and frequently used species, 79% of which have received pharmacological validation, supporting the empirical basis of traditional knowledge. A “limited similarity” pattern was observed in knowledge distribution: although a small number of widely distributed species constitutes shared resource pools across communities and ethnic groups, the majority of knowledge is regionally and ethnically specific. This pattern reflects the dual influence of shared environmental resources and distinct cultural practices, highlighting the complex interplay between ecological adaptation and cultural diversity in shaping traditional knowledge systems. These findings provide a basis for practical conservation strategies: prioritizing culturally significant and frequently used species for sustainable use, supporting community-based documentation of locally restricted knowledge, and conducting targeted phytochemical investigations on species where traditional uses diverge from current research. This culturally sensitive approach is crucial for protecting the medical knowledge of the region and can help ensure that it continues to contribute to the health of the community.
Supplementary Information
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Abbreviations
- HUF
The herb utilization frequency
- NCSI
National cultural significance index
- FQI
Frequency of quotation index
- AI
Availability index
- FUI
Frequency of utilization index
- PUI
Parts used index
- MFI
Multifunctional use index
- CEI
Curative effect index
- DSI
Drug safety index
Author contributions
X C: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Software, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Investigation. P W: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Methodology, Data curation, Investigation, Formal analysis. X W: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. M X, L L, Y Z, Q O, and R H: Investigation, Data curation. X J: Writing - review & editing. Q Y, F W, and S L: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Validation, Project administration, Supervision, Resources. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by Guizhou Provincial Science and Technology Projects (Qiankehe foundation [2024] Youth 317), Project on Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Science and Technology of Guizhou Provincial Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine (QZYY-2025-020), Zunyi Medical University postdoctoral training fund project (ZYBSH [2024]016), and Guizhou Key Laboratory of Modern Traditional Chinese Medicine Creation (Qiankehe Platform ZSYS [2025] 019).
Data availability
The data supporting the conclusions of this article are available within the article and its supplementary materials.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Xingxing Chen and Pan Wang contributed equally to this work.
Contributor Information
Qiuyang Yao, Email: yaoqiuyang@zmu.edu.cn.
Faming Wu, Email: wufaming@zmu.edu.cn.
Sha Liu, Email: liusha@zmu.edu.cn.
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