Abstract
Background
Edible underground storage organ (USO) plants are important components of traditional food systems and local healthcare, yet their ethnobotanical roles remain insufficiently documented in many regions. This study investigates the diversity, utilization, and ethnomedicinal significance of USO plants in Youjiang District, Guangxi, China.
Methods
Ethnobotanical data were collected in 2025 through semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and field surveys involving 60 informants, including key informants recognized for their knowledge of local edible plants. Plant specimens were collected and taxonomically identified. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including Use Value (UV), Fidelity Level (FL), and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), were applied to evaluate the cultural importance and medicinal consensus of recorded species.
Results
A total of 50 USO plant species belonging to 24 genera and 13 families were documented, with Zingiberaceae as the dominant family. Native species accounted for 72%, and rhizomes were the most common storage organ type. USO plants were used across multiple categories, particularly as medicine (39 species), vegetables (24 species), condiments (20 species), and staple foods (18 species). The highest UV was recorded for Allium sativum L. (0.883). FL values ranged from 6.67% to 100%, and ICF values from 0.750 to 1.000, indicating strong agreement among informants. Most remedies were prepared from fresh materials and administered orally.
Conclusion
USO plants in Youjiang District function as important biocultural resources that support local food practices and traditional healthcare. The high diversity of native and multifunctional species, together with strong ethnomedicinal consensus among informants, highlights the importance of conserving both plant resources and associated traditional knowledge. These findings provide a baseline for future nutritional, pharmacological, and sustainable utilization studies of culturally important USO species.
Keywords: China, Ethnobotany, Medicinal plants, Tuberous plants, Youjiang District
Background
Ethnobotany investigates the dynamic relationships between human societies and plant resources, emphasizing traditional knowledge systems, cultural practices, and patterns of plant use that have developed through long-term interactions with local environments [1]. Within this interdisciplinary field, edible plants constitute a fundamental component of subsistence strategies, dietary diversity, and community well-being [2]. In particular, plants bearing edible underground storage organs (USOs)—including bulbs, corms, rhizomes, taproots, tuberous roots, and tubers—play a pivotal role in traditional food systems due to their high energy content, resilience to environmental fluctuations, and multifunctional roles along the food–medicine continuum [3].
The USO plants contribute significantly to food sustainability and food security, especially in rural and semi-rural landscapes. Their capacity to store carbohydrates and water allows them to serve as reliable food resources during seasonal shortages, climatic uncertainty, or periods of agricultural transition [4]. Many USO plants can be harvested over extended periods or stored after collection, enhancing household food availability and buffering against supply instability [5]. From a sustainability perspective, several wild and semi-domesticated USO species require minimal external inputs, are well adapted to local ecological conditions, and can be integrated into diversified agroecosystems, thereby supporting environmentally sustainable food production [6].
Beyond their subsistence value, USO plants also play an important economic role at the local scale. In many communities, these plants are sold in local markets as fresh produce, processed foods, or medicinal ingredients, providing supplementary income for households [7]. Market-based utilization of USO plants reflects both cultural preferences and adaptive livelihood strategies, linking traditional plant knowledge with local economies. Such economic activities contribute to livelihood diversification and reinforce the continued relevance of ethnobotanical knowledge in contemporary socio-economic contexts [8].
In East and Southeast Asia, ethnobotanical research has documented the importance of wild and cultivated edible plants in sustaining local food systems. However, studies have predominantly focused on aboveground edible species, while systematic investigations of USO plants remain comparatively limited, particularly at localized geographic scales [9]. Although ethnobotanical studies in China have extensively documented wild edible plants, research explicitly focusing on USO plants is still scarce [10, 11]. This limitation is notable in southwestern China, a region characterized by high biocultural diversity and increasing relevance of sustainable, locally adapted food resources.
Youjiang District, located in Baise City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, represents a biologically and culturally diverse area shaped by complex topography, monsoonal climate, and long-standing agricultural practices [12]. Local communities in this region rely on a combination of cultivated crops, wild edible plants, and market-based resources to meet their dietary and economic needs. USO plants are commonly gathered, cultivated, and traded, reflecting their importance in household food security, cultural food preferences, and small-scale economic exchange [13]. Despite their significance, comprehensive ethnobotanical studies specifically focusing on USO plants in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China, remain limited.
Documenting ethnobotanical knowledge related to USO plants is increasingly important in the face of rapid socio-economic transformation, changing land-use patterns, and shifts in dietary behavior [14]. The erosion of traditional plant use practices may undermine sustainable food systems, reduce dietary diversity, and weaken local economic resilience [15]. Ethnobotanical research can therefore play a critical role in identifying plant resources that support sustainable food use, enhance food security, and contribute to community-based economic development [16].
To address this gap, the present study adopts an integrated quantitative ethnobotanical approach to examine the ecological, cultural, and medicinal significance of USO plants in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China. Quantitative indices, including Use Value (UV), Fidelity Level (FL), and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), were applied to evaluate the cultural importance of species, the specificity of medicinal uses, and the degree of agreement among informants regarding therapeutic applications. In addition, the study considers the multifunctional roles of USO plants within local food systems, particularly their contributions to dietary diversity, food sovereignty, traditional healthcare, and livelihood practices. The term “ethnomedicinal uses of USO plants” in this study refers specifically to the therapeutic applications of edible underground storage organ species within local knowledge systems.
Accordingly, this study hypothesizes that edible underground storage organ (USO) plants in Youjiang District represent multifunctional biocultural resources that contribute not only to local diets, but also to food sovereignty, household resilience, and traditional healthcare systems. It is further hypothesized that species with higher cultural importance exhibit stronger informant consensus and broader integration across food and medicinal use categories.
Therefore, the objectives of this study were to: (i) document the diversity, habitat distribution, and traditional utilization patterns of edible USO plants used by local communities in Youjiang District; (ii) evaluate the cultural significance, use intensity, and knowledge consistency of USO plants using quantitative ethnobotanical indices; and (iii) examine the roles of USO plants in local food systems, traditional healthcare practices, and sustainable livelihood strategies within a changing socio-ecological context.
To achieve these objectives, this study integrates ethnobotanical documentation with quantitative analyses of cultural importance and medicinal consensus, thereby providing baseline data for future research on sustainable food systems, conservation, and community-based resource management.
Methods
Study area
The study was conducted in Youjiang District, located in Baise City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China (Fig. 1). The district lies approximately between 24°80′–23°50′ N latitude and 106°30′–107°10′ E longitude and forms part of the upper Youjiang River basin. The region is influenced by a subtropical monsoon climate, characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons, with an average annual temperature ranging from 17.5 to 23.5 °C and an annual precipitation of approximately 1200–1600 mm [17].
Fig. 1.
Location of the study area in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China: (a) national boundary of China; (b) position of Baise City within Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region; (c) spatial extent of Youjiang District within Baise City (map created with “QGIS” program ver. 3.34, geographic system ID: EPSG4490)
Topographically, Youjiang District is heterogeneous, comprising low mountains, hills, river valleys, and alluvial plains. This varied landscape supports diverse ecosystems and land-use systems, including forests, farmlands, fallow areas, and home gardens [18]. Such environmental heterogeneity provides favorable conditions for a wide range of plant species, including numerous USO plants that are adapted to both wild and managed habitats.
Youjiang District is inhabited by a culturally diverse population, with the Zhuang ethnic group forming the majority, alongside Han, Yao, and other minority communities [19]. Local livelihoods are primarily based on small-scale agriculture, supplemented by home gardening, forest resource use, and seasonal plant collection. Traditional plant-based food practices remain an integral part of daily life, particularly in rural and peri-urban communities, where wild and semi-domesticated edible plants contribute to household food security [20].
The coexistence of traditional subsistence strategies and increasing socio-economic change has shaped a dynamic relationship between local communities and plant resources. Knowledge related to the identification, harvesting, preparation, and consumption of USO plants is embedded in everyday practices and reflects long-term adaptation to local environmental conditions. This makes Youjiang District a suitable setting for documenting and analyzing ethnobotanical knowledge associated with edible underground storage organ plants within a culturally and ecologically diverse landscape.
Field observation and specimen collection
Field surveys were conducted in 2025 through repeated visits to home gardens, local markets, and forested areas within Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. Direct field observations were undertaken to document habitat types, growth forms, harvesting practices, and the seasonal availability of USO plants. Observations in home gardens and forested areas provided insights into cultivation and wild collection practices, while surveys in local markets supported the verification of commonly used and traded USO species.
Plant specimens were collected following standard ethnobotanical and botanical methods. For each recorded species, voucher specimens were prepared, properly labeled, and preserved for future reference. Plant species were identified through comparison with original species descriptions and authoritative taxonomic references, primarily the Flora of China, Plants of the World Online (POWO) (https://powo.science.kew.org) (accessed on 25 November 2025) [21] and the World Flora Online (WFO) Plant List (https://wfoplantlist.org/) (accessed on 25 November 2025) [22]. To ensure taxonomic accuracy and reflect current classifications, relevant literature was reviewed using major scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.
High-resolution digital images and detailed morphological information from the Kew Herbarium and Kew Science online resources were consulted to support visual verification and confirm diagnostic characters. Final species identification was conducted by the Chinese co-author of this study, who has recognized expertise in the regional flora. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Agriculture and Food Engineering College, Baise University, Baise City, Guangxi, China, where a registered herbarium is planned to be established in the near future.
Ethnobotanical interviews
Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and informal conversations. A total of 60 informants participated in the study, including 30 males and 30 females, with ages ranging from 22 to 65 years (Table 1). Informants were selected using purposive and snowball sampling methods, targeting individuals recognized for their knowledge of local edible plants, such as elders, farmers, foragers, and household food preparers.
Table 1.
Demographic characteristics of the study site, including GPS coordinates, gender distribution of key informants, language spoken, and religion
| GPS coordinates | Gender | Ethnicity | Language | Religion | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Latitude (N, S) | Longitude (E, W) | Male | Female | |||
| 23°53′50″N | 106°37′34″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang, Yao | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°54′03″N | 106°36′57″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang, Yao | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°53′03″N | 106°36′56″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°52′41″N | 106°38′59″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°46′58″N | 106°42′47″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°48′45″N | 106°43′17″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°52′54″N | 106°34′17″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang, Yao | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°52′34″N | 106°34′44″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang, Yao | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°48′11″N | 106°37′12″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
| 23°52′36″N | 106°36′11″E | 3 | 3 | Zhuang | Mandarin Chinese | Local folk beliefs |
Although the study area is traditionally inhabited by Zhuang and Yao ethnic communities, Mandarin Chinese is currently the dominant language used in daily communication, education, and public services; therefore, all interviews were conducted in Mandarin Chinese.
Interviews were conducted primarily in Chinese, as the interviewers were proficient in the language. The interviews focused on documenting traditional ethnobotanical knowledge related to USO plants, including local plant names, utilized plant parts, preparation and consumption methods, seasonality, perceived food and medicinal values, and modes of acquisition (wild collection or cultivation). Participants were fully informed about the objectives of the study and their rights prior to participation.
Prior informed consent was obtained from all participants in accordance with the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics [23] and the principles of the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing [24]. Participation was voluntary, and informants were informed of their right to decline participation or withdraw from the study at any stage without any consequences.
Data analysis
Utilization categories
All recorded use reports were classified into utilization categories according to their primary function within local food and ethnomedicinal systems. The categorization was adapted from standard ethnobotanical approaches and modified to reflect the characteristics of USO plants in the study area [9]. The categories were defined as follows:
Beverages: Plant materials consumed as drinks, juices, infusions, decoctions, or other liquid preparations.
Condiments and flavorings: Plant materials used to enhance the aroma, flavor, or palatability of foods, including spices, seasonings, and culinary flavoring agents.
Staple foods: Plant materials consumed as primary energy sources or major components of daily meals, typically rich in starch or carbohydrates.
Sweets, desserts, and snacks: Plant materials used in the preparation of sweet foods, confectioneries, pastries, desserts, and snack products.
Vegetables: Plant materials consumed as vegetables in raw or cooked forms, including soups, salads, stir-fried dishes, and side dishes.
Medicinal uses: Plant materials consumed or applied for the prevention, alleviation, or treatment of health conditions according to local traditional knowledge.
Each species could be assigned to one or more categories depending on the diversity of uses reported by informants. This classification was used to standardize ethnobotanical data and facilitate subsequent quantitative analyses.
Therapeutic categories
Medicinal use reports were further classified into therapeutic categories according to the primary health condition treated, following ethnomedicinal classification approaches commonly used in quantitative ethnobotanical studies [14]. Reported ailments were grouped into the following categories: blood disorders, cardiovascular disorders, central nervous system disorders, eye disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, general tonic, infection/immune disorders, musculoskeletal disorders, obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders, poisoning/toxicology, reproductive disorders, respiratory disorders, and skin disorders.
This classification was used to standardize medicinal use reports and facilitate the calculation of Fidelity Level (FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF).
Use value (UV)
The Use Value (UV) index was calculated to quantify the relative importance of each USO plant species based on the diversity and frequency of its reported uses among informants. UV reflects how intensively a species is utilized within the local food system and associated cultural practices, with higher values indicating broader or more frequent use.
UV was calculated using the following formula [25]:
 |
where Ui represents the total number of use-reports cited by each informant for a given species, and Nis the total number of informants participating in the study. Each distinct food-related or associated use mentioned by an informant was counted as a single use-report.
The UV index does not distinguish between the cultural importance of individual use categories but provides an aggregate measure of a species’ overall ethnobotanical relevance. This metric is particularly useful for identifying key USO species that play central roles in local food security, subsistence strategies, and culinary traditions, and it allows comparison with other ethnobotanical studies following standard methodologies in ethnobiology and ethnomedicine.
Fidelity level (FL)
The Fidelity Level (FL) was calculated to determine the relative importance of a medicinal plant species for treating a particular ailment based on the level of agreement among informants. FL reflects the degree to which a species is specifically associated with a particular therapeutic use within the local ethnomedicinal system.
FL was calculated using the following formula [26]:
 |
where Np is the number of informants who cited the species for the same primary food use, and N is the total number of informants who mentioned the species for any food-related use.
High FL values indicate a high level of consensus regarding the therapeutic application of a given species, suggesting strong cultural recognition of its medicinal role.
Informant consensus factor (ICF)
The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was used to assess the level of agreement among informants concerning the use of USO plants within specific food-use categories. This index helps identify food categories for which traditional knowledge is well shared and culturally homogeneous.
ICF was calculated following the formula [27]:
 |
where Nur is the total number of use reports within a given food-use category, and Nt is the number of taxa used in that category.
ICF values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater consensus among informants and a more focused and widely shared understanding of plant use within that category.
Results
Diversity and composition of USO plants
A total of 50 USO plant species, belonging to 24 genera, 13 families, and 11 orders, were documented in the study area (Figs. 2 and 3; Table 2), indicating considerable taxonomic diversity of USO plants utilized by local communities in Youjiang District. Among the recorded families, Zingiberaceae was the most dominant, comprising 16 species, followed by Araceae with 9 species. Asparagaceae and Dioscoreaceae each contributed 6 species, while Amaryllidaceae accounted for 5 species. The remaining families were each represented by a single species, including Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae, Nelumbonaceae, and Solanaceae.
Fig. 2.
Family-wise diversity of edible underground storage organ plants recorded in Youjiang District, showing the number of species represented in each plant family
Fig. 3.
Representative examples of edible underground storage organ plants recorded in the study area. Photographs by Yuefeng Zhang
Table 2.
Edible underground storage organ plants in Youjiang District, Baise City, China, showing order, family, scientific name, voucher number, Chinese name, Use Value (UV), origin, resource, underground storage organ (USO) type, used part, utilization, method of uses, and previous records in Baise City (reference)
| Order | Family | Scientific name | UV | Vouchor no. | Chinese name (Pin Yin) | Origin | Resource | USO type | Used parts | Utilization | Method of uses | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alismatales | Araceae | Amorphophallus kachinensis Engl. & Gehrm. | 0.417 | ZY-TB045 | 田阳魔芋 (tián yáng mó yù) | Native | Bt | Tuber | Tb | SF | Processed into various food products, including konjac tofu, konjac noodles, and konjac flour | Present study (first USO record) |
| Tb | ME | In traditional practice, it is reported to be used to clear heat, detoxify, resolve phlegm, and promote blood circulation | ||||||||||
| Amorphophallus konjac K.Koch | 0.400 | ZY-TB009 | 魔芋 (mó yù) | Native | Bt | Tuber | Tb | SF | Processed into gel-based foods and food analogs and is primarily utilized industrially for the production of konjac gum | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Tb | ME | In traditional and contemporary local accounts, the tuber is reported to be associated with enhancing immune function, ameliorating fatty liver conditions, delaying cellular aging, and contributing to the prevention of atherosclerosis | ||||||||||
| Amorphophallus yunnanensis Engl. | 0.400 | ZY-TB023 | 滇魔芋 (diān mó yù) | Native | Wd | Tuber | Tb | ME | Traditionally employed for reducing swelling, relieving pain, and detoxification | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott | 0.750 | ZY-TB006 | 芋 (yù) | Native | Bt | Corm | Cm | SW | Processed into flour and various snack products | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29] | ||
| Cryptocoryne crispatula Engl. | 0.350 | ZY-TB017 | 旋苞隐棒花 (xuán bāo yǐn bàng huā) | Native | Wd | Corm | Cm | SF | Traditionally detoxified by soaking and subsequently processed into an edible paste or dried and ground into flour | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Cryptocoryne spiralis (Retz.) Fisch. ex Wydler | 0.383 | ZY-TB041 | 隐棒花 (yǐn bàng huā) | Introduced | Wd | Corm | Cm | SF | Traditionally detoxified by soaking and subsequently processed into an edible paste or dried and ground into flour | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites | 0.517 | ZY-TB022 | 刺芋 (cì yù) | Introduced | Wd | Rhizome | Lf | VB | Consumed as a vegetable | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Rm | ME | Employed in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties; used to aid digestion and in the treatment of lymphatic disorders, gastritis, snake bites, traumatic injuries, and rheumatic arthritis | ||||||||||
| Leucocasia gigantea (Blume) Schott | 0.333 | ZY-TB042 | 大野芋 (dà yě yù) | Native | Bt | Corm | Lf | VB | Consumed raw or prepared in cold dishes, soups, stir-fried, or boiled | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Cm | SF | Starch-rich and employed as an industrial raw material | ||||||||||
| Cm | ME | Decoctions of the corm are used for detoxification, reduction of swelling, resolution of phlegm, and relief of convulsions | ||||||||||
| Typhonium roxburghii Schott | 0.317 | ZY-TB005 | 金慈姑 (jīn cí gū) | Native | Wd | Corm | Cm | SF | Fleshy and starch-rich; consumed after boiling, steaming, stir-frying, or deep-frying | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Lf | VB | Used as vegetables, commonly prepared in soups or cooked dishes | ||||||||||
| Cm | ME | Decoctions are traditionally employed to treat snake bites, infected sores and swellings, traumatic bleeding, injuries from falls or blows, fractures, enteritis, abdominal pain, and gastric ulcers | ||||||||||
| Apiales | Apiaceae | Daucus carota L. | 0.533 | ZY-TB043 | 胡萝卜 (hú luó bo) | Native | Cv | Taproot | Tt | VB | Processed and consumed as a vegetable or further transformed into a variety of food products | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29] |
| Asparagales | Amaryllidaceae | Allium chinense G.Don | 0.667 | ZY-TB004 | 藠头 (jiào tóu) | Introduced | Cv | Bulb | Bu, Lf, Wp | VB | Consumed both raw and cooked; frequently used as an ingredient in stuffing, soups, and pickled preparations | Present study (first USO record) |
| Bu, Lf | ME | In traditional practice, both leaves and bulbs are reported to be used to regulate qi, alleviate chest discomfort, and promote yang | ||||||||||
| Wp | CF | It is commonly incorporated into dishes to mitigate undesirable odors associated with meat and fish | ||||||||||
| Allium × cepiforme G.Don | 0.850 | ZY-TB039 | 葱/小葱 (cōng/xiǎo cōng) | Introduced | Cv | Bulb | Bu, Lf | CF | Used fresh as a common culinary seasoning in stir-fried and boiled dishes to enhance aroma and flavor | Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] | ||
| Wp | ME | Traditionally reported to be used in the treatment of injuries, colds, hematuria, and headaches | ||||||||||
| Allium cepa L. | 0.867 | ZY-TB027 | 洋葱 (yáng cōng) | Introduced | Cv | Bulb | Bu | CF | Used fresh as an ingredient in stir-fried dishes and soups to enhance sweetness and aroma | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] | ||
| Bu | ME | In traditional practice, it is reported to be used to clear heat, resolve phlegm, and detoxify | ||||||||||
| Allium fistulosum L. | 0.833 | ZY-TB040 | 葱/大葱 (cōng/dà cōng) | Introduced | Cv | Bulb | Bu, Lf | CF | Used as a fundamental seasoning ingredient in stir-fried and boiled dishes | Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] | ||
| Wp | ME | Traditionally reported to be used to dispel cold, strengthen the stomach, resolve phlegm, promote perspiration, alleviate pain, and support wound healing; it is also locally described as having antibacterial properties and benefiting respiratory function | ||||||||||
| Allium sativum L. | 0.883 | ZY-TB015 | 蒜/大蒜 (suàn/dà suàn) | Introduced | Cv | Bulb | Bu | CF | Used fresh or pickled as a spice in stir-fried dishes, sauces, and pickled foods to enhance flavor and reduce undesirable odors | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29]; Shen et al. (2026) [30]; Shen et al. (2026) [33] | ||
| Wp | ME | The bulb, scape, and seedlings are all consumed as vegetables. In traditional practice, the plant is reported to be used to relieve food stagnation and to eliminate bacteria and parasites | ||||||||||
| Asparagaceae | Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker Gawl. | 0.300 | ZY-TB007 | 麦冬 (mài dōng) | Native | Bt | Tuberous root | Tr | CF | Dried and used as an ingredient in soups and tonic food preparations | Shen et al. (2026) [30] | |
| Tr | ME | Traditionally employed to promote the generation of body fluids, alleviate thirst, and moisten the lungs for the relief of cough | ||||||||||
| Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle | 0.400 | ZY-TB003 | 卷叶黄精 (juǎn yè huáng jīng) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm | VB | Consumed as an infusion prepared by soaking in water or alcoholic beverages, or incorporated into porridge, soups, and tonic food preparations | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Rm | ME | In traditional medicine, it is used to treat essence deficiency, general debility and weakness, restlessness, dry throat and thirst, and consumptive cough | ||||||||||
| Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua | 0.333 | ZY-TB002 | 多花黄精 (duō huā huáng jīng) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Rm | VB | Consumed as a beverage prepared by soaking in water or alcoholic drinks, or incorporated into porridge, soups, and tonic food preparations | Shen et al. (2026) [32] | ||
| Rm | ME | Traditionally used to manage spleen–stomach deficiency, fatigue, dry mouth accompanied by poor appetite, lung-dryness–related cough, deficiency of essence and blood, and internal heat associated with wasting-thirst syndrome | ||||||||||
| Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl. | 0.300 | ZY-TB046 | 滇黄精 (diān huáng jīng) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm | VB | Consumed as a beverage prepared by soaking in water or alcoholic drinks, or incorporated into porridge, soups, and tonic food preparations | Shen et al. (2026) [32] | ||
| Rm | ME | Traditionally employed to alleviate debility associated with chronic illnesses, low back pain, dry cough, spontaneous sweating, and red or irritated eyes | ||||||||||
| Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce | 0.317 | ZY-TB013 | 玉竹 (yù zhú) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Rm | CF | Dried and used as a seasoning ingredient in soups to enhance flavor | Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] | ||
| Rm | ME | Traditionally applied in the treatment of lung and stomach yin deficiency accompanied by dryness-heat symptoms, including dry cough, dryness of the throat and mouth, and internal heat associated with wasting-thirst | ||||||||||
| Polygonatum punctatum Royle ex Kunth | 0.350 | ZY-TB035 | 点花黄精 (diǎn huā huáng jīng) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm | VB | Consumed as a beverage by soaking in water or alcoholic infusions, or incorporated into porridge, soups, and tonic foods | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Rm | ME | Traditionally employed to clear heat and detoxify, tonify the spleen, and moisten the lungs. It is used in the management of general debility, lung-dryness–related cough, and diabetes. Externally, the rhizome is applied for the treatment of traumatic bleeding and suppurative skin conditions (boils) | ||||||||||
| Brassicales | Brassicaceae | Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Schmalh. | 0.450 | ZY-TB024 | 萝卜/白萝卜 (luó bo/bái luó bo) | Introduced | Cv | Taproot | Tt | BV | Processed into a beverage by blending with water to produce a plant-based drink | Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] |
| Tt | SF | Prepared by steaming, boiling, or stir-frying | ||||||||||
| Tt | SW | Prepared by steaming, boiling, or stir-frying | ||||||||||
| Tt | VB | Prepared by steaming, boiling, or stir-frying | ||||||||||
| Tt | ME | Traditionally regarded as digestive, heat-clearing, and thirst-relieving, and is also believed to contribute to the prevention of gallstone formation | ||||||||||
| Dioscoreales | Dioscoreaceae | Dioscorea alata L. | 0.700 | ZY-TB033 | 参薯 (shēn shǔ) | Introduced | Bt | Tuber | Tb | BV | Processed into beverages | Cen et al. (2026) [31] |
| Tb | SF | Consumed as a staple food | ||||||||||
| Tb | SW | Processed into pastries | ||||||||||
| Tb | VB | Processed into cooked dishes, porridges, and soups | ||||||||||
| Tb | ME | In traditional medicine, the tuber is reported to strengthen the spleen and stomach and to nourish the lungs and kidneys | ||||||||||
| Dioscorea fordii Prain & Burkill | 0.733 | ZY-TB047 | 山薯 (shān shǔ) | Native | Bt | Tuber | Tb | SF | After steaming or boiling, the tuber is consumed as a staple food | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Tb | SW | After steaming or boiling, the tuber is consumed as a vegetable and further used as an ingredient in pastries, and desserts | ||||||||||
| Tb | VB | After steaming or boiling, the tuber is consumed as a vegetable and further used as an ingredient in porridges and soups | ||||||||||
| Wp | ME | In traditional medicine, the tuber is employed to alleviate spleen–stomach deficiency, improve appetite, and treat loose stools | ||||||||||
| Dioscorea japonica Thunb. | 0.767 | ZY-TB008 | 日本薯蓣 (rì běn shǔ yù) | Native | Bt | Tuber | Tb | SF | After steaming or boiling, the tuber is consumed as a staple food | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Tb | SW | After steaming or boiling, the tuber is consumed as a vegetable and further used as an ingredient in pastries, and desserts | ||||||||||
| Lf, Sh | VB | Young shoots or leaf tips are blanched prior to use and are eaten as salads | ||||||||||
| Lf, Sh | CF | Young shoots or leaf tips are added as ingredients in soups | ||||||||||
| Dioscorea polystachya Turcz. | 0.800 | ZY-TB016 | 薯蓣 (shǔ yù) | Native | Bt | Tuber | Tb | BV | Grounded into powder and consumed as a beverage when mixed with water or employed as a functional food additive | Zhang et al. (2025) [29]; Cen et al. (2026) [31] | ||
| Tb | SF | Consumed as a staple food | ||||||||||
| Tb | SW | Processed into pastries | ||||||||||
| Sh | VB | Young shoots are edible and are commonly prepared by pickling, stir-frying, or serving as cold dishes | ||||||||||
| Dioscorea subcalva Prain & Burkill | 0.667 | ZY-TB034 | 毛胶薯蓣 (máo jiāo shǔ yù) | Native | Wd | Tuber | Tb | SF | Processed into yam tofu and used for starch extraction | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Tb | ME | Tuber is employed to strengthen the spleen, dispel dampness, tonify the lungs and kidneys, and to promote healing in cases of wound dehiscence | ||||||||||
| Dioscorea velutipes Prain & Burkill | 0.767 | ZY-TB036 | 毡毛薯蓣 (zhān máo shǔ yù) | Native | Wd | Tuber | Tb | SF | Consumed as a staple food after peeling and soaking, followed by steaming or boiling; additionally, the tuber is dried and milled into flour for use in porridge, cakes, thickening agents, and yam tofu | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Tb | ME | Traditionally employed in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis, diarrhea associated with spleen deficiency, diabetes, and traumatic injuries | ||||||||||
| Fabales | Fabaceae | Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urb. | 0.650 | ZY-TB050 | 豆薯/凉薯/地瓜/沙葛 (dòu shǔ/liáng shǔ/dì guā/shā gé) | Introduced | Cv | Tuberous root | Tr | SW | When dried, it is utilized as a snack or as an ingredient in pastry products | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28] |
| Tr | VB | Consumed raw in salads, stir-fried, or incorporated into soups and congee, and also used as a filling ingredient | ||||||||||
| Liliales | Liliaceae | Lilium brownii Lemoinier | 0.517 | ZY-TB001 | 百合 (bǎi hé) | Native | Bt | Bulb | Bu | SF | Starch-rich and regarded as a high-value food resource; widely incorporated into porridge, soups, stir-fried and steamed dishes | Shen et al. (2026) [32] |
| Bu | ME | In traditional medicine, the bulb is used to moisten the lungs and alleviate cough, clear internal heat, calm the mind, and promote diuresis | ||||||||||
| Fl | CF | Rich in aromatic oils and utilized as a spice or flavoring agent in culinary preparations | ||||||||||
| Poales | Cyperaceae | Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Trin. ex Hensch. | 0.817 | ZY-TB048 | 荸荠/田荠/田藕/马蹄 (bí qí/tián jì/tián ǒu/mǎ tí) | Native | Cv | Corm | Cm | BV | Consumed raw after peeling or processed into fresh juice | Present study (first USO record) |
| Cm | SF | Consumed as a staple food. Widely incorporated into stir-fried dishes and soups, where sliced portions are cooked with meat or shrimp, or simmered with ribs and corn to impart natural sweetness | ||||||||||
| Cm | SW | Used in the preparation of desserts, such as water chestnut cake and sweet soups, as a light and palatable post-meal component | ||||||||||
| Proteales | Nelumbonaceae | Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. | 0.833 | ZY-TB049 | 莲/荷花/芙蓉/莲花 (lián/hé huā/fú róng/lián huā) | Native | Cv | Rhizome | Rm | SF | Typically stir-fried or incorporated into soups; also processed into starch and prepared by steaming, boiling, deep-frying, or juicing | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29] |
| Rm | SW | Used in the preparation of lotus root starch and glutinous rice–stuffed lotus root | ||||||||||
| Rm | VB | Consumed raw or prepared as a salad | ||||||||||
| Solanales | Convolvulaceae | Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. | 0.750 | ZY-TB010 | 番薯/红薯/甜薯 (fān shǔ/hóng shǔ/tián shǔ) | Introduced | Cv | Tuberous root | Tr | BV | Processed into a beverage by blending with water to produce a plant-based drink | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29] |
| Tr | SF | Prepared by steaming, boiling, or stir-frying | ||||||||||
| Tr | SW | Prepared by steaming, boiling, or stir-frying | ||||||||||
| Tr | VB | Prepared by steaming, boiling, or stir-frying | ||||||||||
| Tr | VB | Traditionally employed to cool the blood, promote blood circulation, regulate intestinal function, relieve constipation, and alleviate heat-related conditions | ||||||||||
| Solanaceae | Solanum tuberosum L. | 0.783 | ZY-TB012 | 马铃薯/土豆/洋芋 (mǎ líng shǔ/tǔ dòu/yáng yù) | Introduced | Cv | Tuber | Tb | VB | Processed through steaming, boiling, frying, or stir-frying and utilized as a vegetable | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29] | |
| Tb | SF | Consumed as staple food, | ||||||||||
| Tb | SW | Processed as a raw material for frozen convenience foods and snack products | ||||||||||
| Tb | ME | In traditional medicine, the tuber is employed to promote digestion, strengthen spleen function, tonify qi, and exert detoxifying and anti-inflammatory effects | ||||||||||
| Zingiberales | Zingiberaceae | Alpinia coriandriodora D. Fang | 0.283 | ZY-TB044 | 香姜 (xiāng jiāng) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Wp | CF | Characterized by a coriander-like aroma and widely utilized as a culinary spice | Present study (first USO record) |
| Rm, Wp | ME | Employed in traditional practice for its diaphoretic and qi-regulating properties, and commonly used in the management of colds and gastrointestinal discomfort. Ep: in folk medicine, it is used to dispel wind and regulate qi | ||||||||||
| Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. | 0.567 | ZY-TB014 | 红豆蔻 (hóng dòu kòu) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Rm | ME | Commonly referred to as Dagaoliangjiang, characterized by a pungent and warming nature. It is traditionally used to warm the stomach, dispel cold, and alleviate pain, and is also employed as a culinary seasoning | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29]; Cen et al. (2026) [31] | ||
| Rm | CF | Employed as a culinary seasoning | ||||||||||
| Alpinia japonica (Thunb.) Miq. | 0.317 | ZY-TB018 | 山姜 (shān jiāng) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Rm | ME | Traditionally employed to relieve pain, dispel dampness, and treat rheumatism and gastric disorders | Cen et al. (2026) [31]; Shen et al. (2026) [32] | ||
| Rm | CF | Used as a culinary seasoning | ||||||||||
| Alpinia maclurei Merr. | 0.367 | ZY-TB019 | 假益智 (jiǎ yì zhì) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm, Fr | ME | Traditionally used to regulate qi and to treat abdominal distension and vomiting | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Fr | CF | Rich in volatile oils, which are utilized as culinary spices and serve as raw materials for bioactive insecticides and high-grade fragrance products | ||||||||||
| Alpinia tonkinensis Gagnep. | 0.383 | ZY-TB031 | 滑叶山姜 (huá yè shān jiāng) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Rm | CF | Used as a culinary seasoning | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Amomum maximum Roxb. | 0.267 | ZY-TB021 | 九翅豆蔻 (jiǔ chì dòu kòu) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm, Fr | ME | Commonly employed in traditional practice for the treatment of digestive system disorders | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Fl, Fr, Sh | VB | Consumed as wild vegetables and incorporated into local diets | ||||||||||
| Amomum paratsao-ko S.Q.Tong & Y.M.Xia | 0.317 | ZY-TB011 | 拟草果 (nǐ cǎo guǒ) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Fr | CF | Used as a culinary seasoning | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Amomum subulatum Roxb. | 0.300 | ZY-TB030 | 香豆蔻 (xiāng dòu kòu) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Fr | ME | Used to treat sore throat, tuberculosis, blepharitis, and indigestion; also used as a flavoring for desserts and pastries | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Curcuma longa L. | 0.467 | ZY-TB026 | 姜黄 (jiāng huáng) | Introduced | Bt | Rhizome | Rm | ME | Used to promote qi circulation, relieve pain, and treat menstrual disorders and injuries; also used to produce yellow food colorants and curcumin | Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] | ||
| Kaempferia galanga L. | 0.267 | ZY-TB037 | 山柰 (shān nài) | Native | Cv | Rhizome | Rm | ME | An aromatic stomachic used to dispel cold, remove dampness, and warm the spleen and stomach | Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Shen et al. (2026) [30] | ||
| Rm | CF | Used as a spice. The essential oil is used as a fragrance fixative | ||||||||||
| Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost & Lemarié) M.F.Newman & Škorničk. | 0.233 | ZY-TB029 | 草果 (cǎo guǒ) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Fr | ME | Used to treat cold-damp disorders and digestive problems | Huang et al. (2026) [28] | ||
| Fr | CF | Used as a culinary seasoning to enhance flavor and remove odors | ||||||||||
| Zingiber mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe | 0.250 | ZY-TB038 | 蘘荷 (ráng hé) | Native | Bt | Rhizome | Wp | ME | All plant parts are used medicinally, with reported effects including promotion of blood circulation, relief of cough, detoxification, enhancement of digestion, and warming of the stomach | Shen et al. (2026) [33] | ||
| Lf | VB | Consumed as edible vegetables | ||||||||||
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | 0.783 | ZY-TB025 | 姜 (jiāng) | Native | Cv | Rhizome | Rm | BV | Used fresh or dried as a beverage | Zhang et al. (2026) [13]; Huang et al. (2026) [28]; Zhang et al. (2025) [29]; Shen et al. (2026) [30]; Shen et al. (2026) [33] | ||
| Rm | CF | Used fresh or dried as a seasoning and spice | ||||||||||
| Rm | VB | Consumed as edible vegetables | ||||||||||
| Rm | ME | Medicinally, it warms the middle, disperses cold, relieves nausea, and promotes blood circulation, and is used to treat colds, stomach pain, and vomiting | ||||||||||
| Zingiber roseum (Roxb.) Roscoe | 0.300 | ZY-TB020 | 红冠姜 (hóng guān jiāng) | Introduced | Wd | Rhizome | Sh, Rm | VB | Consumed as vegetables | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Sd | CF | Utilized for the extraction of aromatic oils | ||||||||||
| Rm | ME | Among certain ethnic groups, the rhizome is traditionally used in the treatment of influenza, common colds, and digestive disorders | ||||||||||
| Zingiber striolatum Diels | 0.283 | ZY-TB028 | 阳荷 (yáng hé) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm | ME | Traditionally recognized for promoting blood circulation, relieving cough and phlegm, reducing swelling, and facilitating digestion | Shen et al. (2026) [33] | ||
| Rm | CF | The rhizome is also a source of extractable aromatic oils | ||||||||||
| Rm | VB | As a food resource, it is consumed in multiple culinary forms, including sliced or shredded and stir-fried, or prepared as a cold dish | ||||||||||
| Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. | 0.367 | ZY-TB032 | 红球姜 (hóng qiú jiāng) | Native | Wd | Rhizome | Rm | ME | Employed in traditional practice to dispel wind and remove toxins, and used in the treatment of abdominal pain and diarrhea | Present study (first USO record) | ||
| Lf, Sh | VB | Consumed as vegetables in local food traditions |
Bt (both wild and cultivated), Cv (cultivated), Wd (wild). Used part: Bu (bulb), Cm (corm), Fl (inflorescence), Fr (fruit), Lf (leaf), Rm (rhizome), Sd (seed), Sh (shoot), Tb (tuber), Tr (tuberous root), Tt (taproot), Wp (whole plant). Utilization: BV (beverage), CF (condiments and flavoring), ME (medicine), SF (staple food), SW (sweets/desserts/snacks), VB (vegetables)
Of the 50 recorded species (Fig. 4), 36 species (72.00%) were identified as native, whereas 14 species (28.00%) were introduced. In terms of resource status, 19 species (38.00%) were obtained from both wild and cultivated sources, 17 species (34.00%) were collected exclusively from the wild, and 14 species (28.00%) were cultivated.
Fig. 4.
Proportional distribution of edible underground storage organ plants recorded in Youjiang District, showing (A) origin status, (B) resource status, and (C) underground storage organ types
Regarding USO types, rhizomes were the most prevalent, comprising 23 species (46.00%), followed by tubers with 10 species (20.00%). Bulbs and corms were equally represented, each accounting for 6 species (12.00%). Other types included tuberous roots with 3 species (6.00%) and taproots with 2 species (4.00%) (Fig. 4).
Used parts of USO plants
A total of 12 plant parts of USO species were recorded as being utilized. Among these, rhizomes were the most frequently used part (26.52%), followed by tubers (19.70%). Other commonly used parts included leaves (8.33%) and corms (7.58%). Bulbs, tuberous roots, and whole plants each accounted for 6.81%, while fruits represented 6.06%. Less frequently used parts included shoots and taproots (each 4.55%), followed by inflorescences (1.52%) and seeds (0.76%) (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5.
Proportional distribution of used parts of edible underground storage organ plants recorded in Youjiang District
Utilization of USO plants
The documented USO plants were utilized across several categories. Medicinal uses were the most common, involving 39 species, followed by vegetables with 24 species and condiments and flavorings with 20 species. Other categories included staple foods with 18 species, sweets, desserts, and snacks with 11 species, and beverages with 6 species.
USO plants used as beverage
A total of six species of USO plants were recorded as being utilized in beverage preparation (Table 2). These include Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea polystachya, Eleocharis dulcis, Ipomoea batatas, Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus, and Zingiber officinale.
The taproots of Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus and the tuberous roots of Ipomoea batatas are processed into beverages by blending with water to produce plant-based drinks. Similarly, the corms of Eleocharis dulcis are consumed fresh after peeling or processed into juice. The tubers of Dioscorea alata are also processed into beverages, whereas those of Dioscorea polystachya are typically ground into powder and mixed with water or used as a functional food additive. In addition, the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale are commonly used in beverage preparation, either fresh or dried, contributing to aroma and flavor.
USO plants used as condiments and flavoring
A total of 20 species of USO plants were recorded as being used as condiments and flavoring agents in local cuisine (Table 2). These species are primarily utilized to enhance aroma, improve taste, and reduce undesirable odors in food preparations.
Several species of the genus Allium were frequently used as culinary seasonings, including A. × cepiforme, A. cepa, A. chinense, A. fistulosum, and A. sativum, whose bulbs or leaves are commonly added fresh to stir-fried and boiled dishes, soups, sauces, and pickled foods.
Species belonging to the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) also played an important role as flavoring agents. These include Alpinia coriandriodora, A. galanga, A. japonica, A. maclurei, A. tonkinensis, Amomum paratsao-ko, Kaempferia galanga, Lanxangia tsao-ko, Zingiber officinale, Z. roseum, and Z. striolatum, where rhizomes, fruits, or seeds rich in aromatic oils are widely used as spices.
In addition, other species contributing to flavoring and seasoning include Dioscorea japonica, whose young shoots or leaf tips are occasionally added to soups; Lilium brownii, whose flowers contain aromatic oils and are used as spices; Ophiopogon japonicus, whose dried tuberous roots are used in soups and tonic foods; and Polygonatum odoratum, whose rhizomes are dried and incorporated into soups as a seasoning ingredient.
USO plants used as staple food
A total of 18 species of USO plants were recorded as staple food resources (Table 2). These plants are primarily valued for their high starch content and are widely processed into a variety of staple foods.
Several species belonging to the genus Dioscorea were prominently used as staple foods, including D. alata, D. fordii, D. japonica, D. polystachya, D. subcalva, and D. velutipes. Their tubers are typically consumed after steaming or boiling and further processed into porridges, soups, pastries, desserts, noodles, and starch-based products such as flour and yam tofu.
Other important staple food species include Ipomoea batatas, Solanum tuberosum, Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus, and Eleocharis dulcis, which are widely consumed after steaming, boiling, frying, or stir-frying and incorporated into a range of staple dishes. In particular, Eleocharis dulcis is commonly used in stir-fried dishes and soups, contributing natural sweetness to culinary preparations.
In addition, several species from the family Araceae were also documented as staple food resources. These include Amorphophallus kachinensis and A. konjac, whose tubers are processed into konjac-based products such as tofu, noodles, and flour, as well as industrial materials such as konjac gum. Similarly, Cryptocoryne crispatula and C. spiralis are traditionally detoxified through soaking before being processed into edible paste or flour. Other species, including Leucocasia gigantea and Typhonium roxburghii, are valued for their starch-rich corms, which are consumed after cooking.
Additionally, Lilium brownii is recognized as a nutritious and starch-rich food resource, commonly incorporated into porridges, soups, and steamed dishes. The rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera is also widely consumed as a staple food, typically stir-fried or used in soups, and further processed into starch or prepared using various cooking methods such as steaming, boiling, deep-frying, and juicing.
USO plants used as sweets/desserts/snacks
A total of 11 species of USO plants were documented as being used in the preparation of sweets, desserts, and snack foods (Table 2). These plants are generally valued for their starch-rich storage organs, which are suitable for processing into a wide range of sweet and snack products.
Among them, Colocasia esculenta is processed into flour and various snack products. Several species of the genus Dioscorea, including D. alata, D. fordii, D. japonica, and D. polystachya, are widely incorporated into desserts, pastries, porridges, and other sweet dishes following steaming or boiling.
Other species used in sweet or snack preparations include Ipomoea batatas, whose tuberous roots are processed into a variety of sweet foods and snack products, and Eleocharis dulcis, which contributes natural sweetness and is commonly used in both savory and sweet preparations. The rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera is used in the preparation of traditional desserts such as lotus root starch and glutinous rice–stuffed lotus root.
In addition, Pachyrhizus erosus is utilized in dried form as a snack or as an ingredient in pastry products, while Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus can also be incorporated into snack products after cooking. Solanum tuberosum is widely used as a raw material for frozen convenience foods and snack products.
USO plants used as vegetables
A total of 24 species of USO plants were recorded as being used as vegetables (Table 2). These species are consumed in diverse culinary forms, including raw preparations, salads, soups, stir-fried dishes, boiled foods, pickled products, and congee.
Among them, Allium chinense is consumed both raw and cooked and is frequently incorporated into stuffing, soups, and pickled preparations. The taproot of Daucus carota is widely consumed as a vegetable and further processed into a variety of food products. Leafy vegetables include Lasia spinosa, Leucocasia gigantea, and Typhonium roxburghii, whose leaves are commonly prepared in soups or cooked dishes.
Several species of the genus Dioscorea, including D. alata, D. fordii, D. japonica, and D. polystachya, as well as Ipomoea batatas, Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus, and Solanum tuberosum, are also widely utilized as vegetables after steaming, boiling, frying, or stir-frying. In some cases, such as D. japonica, young shoots or leaf tips are blanched and consumed as salads.
Species of Polygonatum (P. cirrhifolium, P. cyrtonema, P. kingianum, and P. punctatum) are incorporated into porridge, soups, tonic foods, or consumed as beverages prepared by soaking in water or alcoholic infusions, reflecting their dual role as vegetables and functional foods. Similarly, Pachyrhizus erosus is consumed raw in salads, stir-fried, or added to soups and congee, and may also be used as a filling ingredient, while Nelumbo nucifera is consumed raw or prepared as a salad.
Members of the Zingiberaceae also contribute significantly to vegetable use, including Amomum maximum, Zingiber mioga, Z. officinale, Z. roseum, Z. striolatum, and Z. zerumbet. Their shoots, leaves, inflorescences, or rhizomes are consumed in a variety of vegetable dishes, either stir-fried, prepared as cold dishes, or incorporated into local culinary traditions.
USO plants used as medicine
A total of 39 USO plant species were documented as being utilized as both food and medicinal resources (Table 2). These species are commonly incorporated into the local diet while simultaneously serving as components of traditional health practices, reflecting the close relationship between food and medicine in local knowledge systems.
Several species also showed overlapping utilization across multiple food categories. For instance, species such as Dioscorea alata, Ipomoea batatas, and Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus are consumed as staple foods or vegetables while also recognized for their medicinal roles. Similarly, aromatic species from the ginger family (Zingiberaceae), including Alpinia galanga, Kaempferia galanga, and Zingiber officinale, function both as culinary spices and medicinal plants.
In addition, several species belonging to the genus Polygonatum, such as P. cyrtonema, P. kingianum, and P. odoratum, are widely utilized as tonic foods, further illustrating the integration of medicinal and dietary functions within local food traditions.
Use value of USO plants
The Use Value (UV) analysis revealed considerable variation in the cultural importance and utilization frequency of USO plant species in the study area (Table 2). UV values ranged from 0.233 to 0.883, indicating differences in the degree of reliance and recognition among local informants.
The highest UV was recorded for Allium sativum (0.883), followed by Allium cepa (0.867), Allium × cepiforme (0.850), and Allium fistulosum (0.833). These species, together with Nelumbo nucifera (0.833) and Eleocharis dulcis (0.817), represent the most culturally salient plants, reflecting their frequent use in daily life and their importance in both dietary and medicinal contexts.
Several species also exhibited relatively high UV values, including Dioscorea polystachya (0.800), Solanum tuberosum (0.783), Zingiber officinale (0.783), Dioscorea japonica (0.767), and Dioscorea velutipes (0.767). These taxa are widely utilized and commonly cited by informants, indicating their significant role in local subsistence and traditional practices.
Species with moderate UV values included Colocasia esculenta (0.750), Ipomoea batatas (0.750), Dioscorea fordii (0.733), Dioscorea alata (0.700), Allium chinense (0.667), Dioscorea subcalva (0.667), and Pachyrhizus erosus (0.650), suggesting that these plants are also well known and regularly used, though cited less frequently than the highest-ranking species.
In contrast, lower UV values were observed for species such as Zingiber mioga (0.250), Lanxangia tsao-ko (0.233), Amomum maximum (0.267), and Kaempferia galanga (0.267), indicating relatively limited citation among informants. These lower values may reflect more specialized uses, restricted availability, or declining familiarity within the community.
Condition of plants used and routes of administration of USO plants used as medicinal plants
All recorded medicinal USO plant materials were utilized in fresh form (100%) (Fig. 6). Fresh plant parts were typically prepared immediately after harvesting, including direct consumption, cooking as food, or preparation as decoctions by boiling in water.
Fig. 6.
Proportional distribution of ethnomedicinal practices of edible underground storage organ plants in Youjiang District, showing (A) condition of plant materials used and (B) routes of administration
Regarding routes of administration (Fig. 6), the majority of medicinal preparations were administered orally (97.41%). A smaller proportion (2.59%) was applied dermally, primarily for external use.
Fidelity level (%FL) of USO plants used as medicinal plants
The Fidelity Level (FL) was calculated to assess the degree of agreement among informants regarding the principal medicinal use of each plant species (Table 3). FL values ranged from 6.67% to 100%, indicating different levels of specificity in ethnomedicinal applications.
Table 3.
Fidelity level (FL) and ethnomedicinal uses of underground storage organ plants used by the studied community, including scientific name, fidelity level (%FL), plant parts used (UP), condition of plants used (CoP), preparation, routes of administration (RoA), applications, and therapeutic categories
| Scientific name | %FL | UP | CoP | Preparation | RoA | Applications | Therapeutic categories |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Allium × cepiforme G.Don | 14.29 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat injuries | Musculoskeletal disorders |
| 28.57 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat colds | Infection/immune disorders | |
| 35.71 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat hematuria | Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders | |
| 21.43 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat headaches | Central nervous system disorders | |
| Allium cepa L. | 41.67 | Bu | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to clear heat | Infection/immune disorders |
| 25.00 | Bu | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to resolve phlegm | Respiratory disorders | |
| 33.33 | Bu | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to detoxify the body | Poisoning/toxicology | |
| Allium chinense G.Don | 42.86 | Bu, Lf | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to regulate qi | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 21.43 | Bu, Lf | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote yang | General tonic | |
| 35.71 | Bu, Lf | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to alleviate chest discomfort | Reproductive disorders | |
| Allium fistulosum L. | 50.00 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to dispel cold | General tonic |
| 16.67 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to strengthen the stomach | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 33.33 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to resolve phlegm | Respiratory disorders | |
| Allium sativum L. | 40.00 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve food stagnation | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 60.00 | Wp | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to eliminate bacteria and parasites | Infection/immune disorders | |
| Alpinia coriandriodora D. Fang | 37.50 | Rm, Wp | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to manage colds | Infection/immune disorders |
| 62.50 | Rm, Wp | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve gastrointestinal discomfort | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. | 54.55 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to warm the stomach | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 45.45 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to alleviate pain | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| Alpinia japonica (Thunb.) Miq. | 43.75 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve pain | Musculoskeletal disorders |
| 25.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat rheumatism | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| 31.25 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat gastric disorders | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Alpinia maclurei Merr. | 77.78 | Rm, Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to regulate qi | General tonic |
| 22.22 | Rm, Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat abdominal distension | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Amomum maximum Roxb. | 100.00 | Rm, Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat digestive system disorders | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| Amomum subulatum Roxb. | 26.32 | Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat sore throat | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 36.84 | Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat tuberculosis | Infection/immune disorders | |
| 10.53 | Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat blepharitis | Eye disorders | |
| 26.32 | Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat indigestion | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Amorphophallus kachinensis Engl. & Gehrm. | 46.67 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to detoxify the body | Poisoning/toxicology |
| 20.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to resolve phlegm | Respiratory disorders | |
| 33.33 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to promote blood circulation | Cardiovascular disorders | |
| Amorphophallus konjac K.Koch | 30.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to enhance immune function | Infection/immune disorders |
| 20.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to ameliorate fatty liver conditions | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 40.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to delay cellular aging | General tonic | |
| 10.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to contribute to the prevention of atherosclerosis | Cardiovascular disorders | |
| Amorphophallus yunnanensis Engl. | 26.67 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to reduce swelling | Musculoskeletal disorders |
| 33.33 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve pain | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| 40.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking | Oral | Traditionally used to detoxify the body | Poisoning/toxicology | |
| Curcuma longa L. | 6.67 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote qi circulation | General tonic |
| 20.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve pain | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| 33.33 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat menstrual disorders | Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders | |
| 40.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat injuries | Skin disorders | |
| Dioscorea alata L. | 25.00 | Tb | Fresh | Steamed or boiled until cooked | Oral | Traditionally used to strengthen the spleen | Infection/immune disorders |
| 50.00 | Tb | Fresh | Steamed or boiled until cooked | Oral | Traditionally used to strengthen the stomach | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 25.00 | Tb | Fresh | Steamed or boiled until cooked | Oral | Traditionally used to nourish the lungs | Respiratory disorders | |
| Dioscorea fordii Prain & Burkill | 37.50 | Wp | Fresh | Steamed or boiled until cooked, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to alleviate spleen deficiency | Infection/immune disorders |
| 43.75 | Wp | Fresh | Steamed or boiled until cooked, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to alleviate stomach deficiency | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 18.75 | Wp | Fresh | Steamed or boiled until cooked, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat loose stools | Infection/immune disorders | |
| Dioscorea subcalva Prain & Burkill | 33.33 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to strengthen the spleen | Infection/immune disorders |
| 46.67 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to tonify the lungs | Respiratory disorders | |
| 20.00 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to tonify the kidneys | Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders | |
| Dioscorea velutipes Prain & Burkill | 23.81 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat pulmonary tuberculosis | Respiratory disorders |
| 23.81 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat diarrhea | Infection/immune disorders | |
| 28.57 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat diabetes | Blood disorders | |
| 23.81 | Tb | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat traumatic injuries | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. | 31.25 | Tr | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote blood circulation | Cardiovascular disorders |
| 37.50 | Tr | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to regulate intestinal function | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 31.25 | Tr | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve constipation | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Kaempferia galanga L. | 38.89 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to warm the spleen | Infection/immune disorders |
| 61.11 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to warm the stomach | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost & Lemarié) M.F.Newman & Škorničk. | 86.67 | Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat cold-damp disorders | General tonic |
| 13.33 | Fr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat digestive problems | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites | 16.67 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used for analgesic purposes | Musculoskeletal disorders |
| 16.67 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to aid digestion | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 25.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat gastritis | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 41.67 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat rheumatic arthritis | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| Leucocasia gigantea (Blume) Schott | 15.79 | Cm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to detoxify the body | Poisoning/toxicology |
| 21.05 | Cm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to reduce swelling | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| 31.58 | Cm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to resolve phlegm | Respiratory disorders | |
| 31.58 | Cm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve convulsions | Central nervous system disorders | |
| Lilium brownii Lemoinier | 25.00 | Bu | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to moisten the lungs | Respiratory disorders |
| 33.33 | Bu | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to alleviate cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| 41.67 | Bu | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote diuresis | Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders | |
| Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker Gawl. | 53.85 | Tr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote the generation of body fluids | General tonic |
| 23.08 | Tr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| 23.08 | Tr | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to alleviate thirst | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle | 26.67 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat general debility and weakness | Musculoskeletal disorders |
| 33.33 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat dry throat and thirst | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 40.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat consumptive cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua | 50.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat dry mouth accompanied by poor appetite | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 50.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat lung-dryness–related cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl. | 35.71 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat low back pain | Musculoskeletal disorders |
| 42.86 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat dry cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| 21.43 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat red or irritated eyes | Eye disorders | |
| Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce | 42.86 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat dry cough | Respiratory disorders |
| 57.14 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat dryness of the throat and mouth | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Polygonatum punctatum Royle ex Kunth | 28.57 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to detoxify the body | Poisoning/toxicology |
| 35.71 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat general debility | Musculoskeletal disorders | |
| 35.71 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat diabetes | Blood disorders | |
| Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Schmalh. | 77.78 | Tt | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to aid digestion | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 22.22 | Tt | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve thirst | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Solanum tuberosum L. | 16.67 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote digestion | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 33.33 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to exert detoxifying effects | Poisoning/toxicology | |
| 50.00 | Tb | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to exert anti-inflammatory effects | Infection/immune disorders | |
| Typhonium roxburghii Schott | 18.75 | Cm | Fresh | External uses | Dermal | Traditionally used to treat snake bites | Poisoning/toxicology |
| 31.25 | Cm | Fresh | External uses | Dermal | Traditionally used to treat infected sores and swellings | Skin disorders | |
| 25.00 | Cm | Fresh | External uses | Dermal | Traditionally used to treat injuries caused by falls or blows | Skin disorders | |
| 25.00 | Cm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat abdominal pain and gastric ulcers | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Zingiber mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe | 31.58 | Wp | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote blood circulation | Cardiovascular disorders |
| 36.84 | Wp | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| 31.58 | Wp | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to detoxify the body | Poisoning/toxicology | |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | 56.25 | Rm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve nausea | Gastrointestinal disorders |
| 12.50 | Rm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote blood circulation | Cardiovascular disorders | |
| 12.50 | Rm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat colds | Infection/immune disorders | |
| 18.75 | Rm | Fresh | Consumed fresh, used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat stomach pain | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Zingiber roseum (Roxb.) Roscoe | 25.00 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat influenza | Infection/immune disorders |
| 37.50 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat common colds | Infection/immune disorders | |
| 37.50 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat digestive disorders | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Zingiber striolatum Diels | 33.33 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to promote blood circulation | Cardiovascular disorders |
| 19.05 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve cough | Respiratory disorders | |
| 23.81 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to relieve phlegm | Respiratory disorders | |
| 23.81 | Rm | Fresh | Prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to facilitate digestion | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. | 25.00 | Rm | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to dispel wind | General tonic |
| 37.50 | Rm | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat abdominal pain | Gastrointestinal disorders | |
| 37.50 | Rm | Fresh | Used in cooking, or prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and drinking the filtrate | Oral | Traditionally used to treat diarrhea | Infection/Immune disorders |
Used part: Bu (bulb), Cm (corm), Fr (fruit), Lf (leaf), Rm (rhizome), Tb (tuber), Tr (tuberous root), Tt (taproot), Wp (whole plant)
The highest FL value (100%) was recorded for Amomum maximum, which was consistently reported for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. High FL values were also observed for Lanxangia tsao-ko (86.67%) as a general tonic, Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (77.78%) for digestive disorders, and Alpinia maclurei (77.78%) for regulating qi, reflecting strong informant agreement on their primary medicinal uses.
Moderately high FL values were recorded for Zingiber officinale (56.25%) for relieving nausea, Alpinia galanga (54.55%) for warming the stomach, and Ophiopogon japonicus (53.85%) for promoting body fluid production, indicating that these species were associated with a predominant therapeutic application while also being reported for other uses.
Several species exhibited relatively low FL values because informants reported multiple medicinal applications rather than a single dominant use. For example, Curcuma longa showed the lowest FL value (6.67%) for promoting qi circulation, while Zingiber officinale (12.50%) and Leucocasia gigantea (15.79%) were cited for various therapeutic purposes. These patterns suggest that the recorded species differ in the specificity of their traditional medicinal applications, with some being strongly associated with a particular ailment and others serving broader ethnomedicinal roles.
Informant consensus factor (ICF) of USO plants used as medicinal plants
The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated to evaluate the level of agreement among informants regarding the use of medicinal plants for treating different therapeutic categories (Table 4). The ICF values in this study ranged from 0.750 to 1.000, indicating a generally high degree of shared ethnomedicinal knowledge among the informants.
Table 4.
Informant consensus factor (ICF) of edible underground storage organ species used as medicine in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China
| Therapeutic category | N ur | N t | ICF |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive disorders | 5 | 1 | 1.000 |
| Skin disorders | 15 | 2 | 0.929 |
| Blood disorders | 11 | 2 | 0.900 |
| Central nervous system disorders | 9 | 2 | 0.875 |
| General tonic | 50 | 8 | 0.857 |
| Infection/immune disorders | 82 | 14 | 0.840 |
| Musculoskeletal disorders | 60 | 11 | 0.831 |
| Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders | 18 | 4 | 0.824 |
| Gastrointestinal disorders | 148 | 27 | 0.823 |
| Respiratory disorders | 76 | 15 | 0.813 |
| Cardiovascular disorders | 27 | 6 | 0.808 |
| Poisoning/toxicology | 37 | 8 | 0.806 |
| Eye disorders | 5 | 2 | 0.750 |
The highest ICF value (1.000) was recorded for reproductive disorders, suggesting complete consensus among informants on the use of a single plant species for this therapeutic category. High ICF values were also observed for skin disorders (0.929) and blood disorders (0.900), indicating strong agreement among informants regarding the plant species used to treat these ailments. Similarly, relatively high consensus was found for central nervous system disorders (0.875) and general tonic (0.857), reflecting consistent traditional knowledge on the medicinal plants used for these health conditions.
The gastrointestinal disorders category had the highest number of use reports (Nur = 148) and plant species (Nt = 27), with an ICF value of 0.823, suggesting that gastrointestinal problems are common in the community and are treated using a wide range of medicinal plants. Other categories such as infection/immune disorders (0.840), musculoskeletal disorders (0.831), obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders (0.824), respiratory disorders (0.813), cardiovascular disorders (0.808), and poisoning/toxicology (0.806) also demonstrated relatively high levels of agreement among informants.
In contrast, eye disorders showed the lowest ICF value (0.750), indicating comparatively lower consensus and a greater diversity of plant species used for treating eye-related conditions. Overall, the high ICF values across most therapeutic categories highlight the strong traditional knowledge and consistent use of medicinal plants within the community.
Discussion
Biocultural significance and food system roles of USO plants
The diversity of USO plants documented in this study reflects more than a broad taxonomic range; it reveals a deeply embedded biocultural system in which plant resources support everyday subsistence, dietary diversity, and adaptive food practices [34]. Rather than functioning as occasional or fallback resources, many USO species are integrated into routine diets, contributing to staple foods, vegetables, snacks, and beverages. This integration suggests that local food systems are structured around flexibility, where different plant types can be mobilized across seasons and contexts [35].
Such multifunctionality plays a critical role in strengthening food sovereignty, understood not only as access to food but as the right of communities to define their own food systems, production practices, and consumption patterns. By drawing on a combination of wild, semi-managed, and cultivated species, local communities retain control over key resources and maintain food autonomy rooted in local ecological conditions and cultural preferences [36, 37]. This reduces dependence on external markets and input-intensive systems, while enabling flexible and adaptive responses to environmental variability and socio-economic fluctuations [38]. In particular, starch-rich taxa such as species of Dioscorea, Ipomoea batatas, and Nelumbo nucifera provide versatile food bases that can be processed into multiple forms, enhancing both availability and storage potential [39–41].
At the same time, the coexistence of widely used and less frequently cited species points to a stratified and dynamic food system rather than a homogeneous one. While a limited number of culturally prominent plants underpin daily subsistence, a broader assemblage of lesser-used species functions as a critical reservoir of ecological and nutritional diversity. These marginal or underutilized taxa often embody adaptive traits—such as tolerance to environmental stress, seasonal availability, or unique micronutrient profiles—that enhance the overall resilience of the food system [42].
Evidence from recent studies on neglected and underutilized species indicates that such plants contribute to all four pillars of food security—availability, access, utilization, and stability—particularly by buffering communities against climatic and production shocks and by supplying diverse nutritional resources [43]. Consequently, their gradual decline does not merely represent a loss of botanical diversity, but also a reduction in the system’s adaptive capacity and response options under changing environmental and socio-economic conditions [44].
In this context, maintaining both dominant and marginal species is essential for preserving what can be understood as “functional redundancy” within local food systems. This redundancy allows communities to shift between species as conditions change, thereby sustaining dietary diversity and food security over time [45]. The erosion of less frequently used taxa may therefore lead to a narrowing of dietary options and increased vulnerability, underscoring the importance of safeguarding the full spectrum of plant diversity embedded within traditional food practices [46].
Ecological patterns and environmental implications
The patterns of USO plant use indicate a close linkage between local food systems and heterogeneous landscapes. The reliance on plants occurring across different habitats—from forests to cultivated fields and semi-wild environments—suggests that resource availability is tied to landscape diversity rather than a single production system [47]. This relationship has important implications under ongoing land-use change, where the simplification of landscapes can reduce not only species diversity but also the diversity and reliability of functional food resources, potentially disrupting the supply of wild and locally sourced foods in biodiverse regions [48].
The prominence of underground storage organs reflects more than a simple ecological trait; rather, it represents a strategic adaptation that links plant persistence with environmental uncertainty and human subsistence needs. Rhizomes, tubers, and corms function as belowground reserves of carbohydrates, water, and other nutrients, enabling plants to survive seasonal drought, disturbance, and climatic fluctuations while rapidly regenerating when favorable conditions return. Such storage structures are widely recognized as key adaptive traits in geophytic plants, particularly in environments characterized by strong seasonality and episodic stress [49, 50].
This capacity for belowground persistence makes USO plants particularly important components of local agro-ecological systems. Because these organs remain protected beneath the soil surface, they often continue to provide stable food resources even when aboveground crops are affected by drought, flooding, or temperature extremes [51]. In this sense, USO plants contribute not only to ecological resilience but also to temporal stability in household food availability, functioning as buffering resources during periods of environmental uncertainty and seasonal food scarcity [52].
However, such resilience should not be interpreted as unlimited persistence. Since the harvested portion is frequently the same organ responsible for storage and regeneration, intensive or repeated extraction can directly reduce the regenerative capacity of wild populations. Unsustainable harvesting may therefore compromise long-term population viability, particularly in species with slower regeneration cycles or restricted habitat distributions [53, 54].
The present study identified that 17 USO species (34.00%) are obtained exclusively from wild habitats, while 19 species (38.00%) are collected from both wild and cultivated environments. Because the harvested organs are also responsible for plant regeneration, increasing demand for edible and medicinal USO plants may place additional pressure on natural populations. Promoting the cultivation of culturally important and high-use-value species, together with seasonal harvesting and community-based management, would reduce pressure on wild resources while maintaining local food traditions and conserving biocultural diversity.
These findings underscore the need to situate edible plant diversity within broader conservation and food-system frameworks. Maintaining habitat heterogeneity is essential for sustaining species occupying different ecological niches, while traditional harvesting knowledge and community-based management practices remain critical for aligning resource use with regeneration dynamics. Together, these approaches are fundamental not only for biodiversity conservation but also for strengthening the long-term resilience of local food systems under ongoing environmental change [55, 56].
Food–medicine continuum and public health relevance
The strong overlap between dietary and medicinal uses reflects a food–medicine continuum in which health maintenance is embedded within everyday consumption [57]. Rather than being restricted to specialized treatments, plant-based resources are routinely selected and consumed for their perceived physiological benefits, functioning as a form of preventive healthcare [58].
The predominance of species that simultaneously function as foods and medicines reflects a culturally embedded perception in which nutrition and healthcare are inseparable components of everyday life. Rather than distinguishing between edible and medicinal plants as separate resources, local communities incorporate USO plants into daily diets with the expectation that regular consumption contributes to maintaining health and preventing illness. This cultural pattern is particularly evident in the frequent use of species belonging to Zingiberaceae, Dioscoreaceae, and Allium, which are consumed as staple foods, vegetables, condiments, and traditional remedies. Similar food–medicine traditions have been documented across southern China and neighboring regions, where dietary practices are strongly influenced by the concept of maintaining body balance through everyday foods [59, 60]. The persistence of these multifunctional uses suggests that cultural values continue to shape plant selection, preparation, and consumption despite ongoing socio-economic transitions and changing food environments, thereby reinforcing the transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge across generations.
From a public health perspective, this integration represents a decentralized and accessible health system, particularly relevant in rural contexts. Regular intake of plant-based foods with bioactive properties may contribute to the management of common conditions while reducing reliance on external healthcare services [61]. The high level of shared knowledge among informants further indicates that these practices are collectively maintained and culturally reinforced [62].
However, the predominance of fresh preparation and ingestion-based use also introduces variability in dosage and efficacy. While this flexibility enhances accessibility, it highlights the need for further pharmacological and nutritional research. Integrating such knowledge into contemporary health frameworks may strengthen culturally appropriate and sustainable public health strategies [63, 64].
Knowledge dynamics and socio-ecological resilience
The patterns of plant use reflect how traditional knowledge is maintained through everyday practice. Species that are commonly used in daily life are more likely to be remembered and passed on, while those with limited or seasonal use are more prone to being forgotten over time [65].
Although the study area is inhabited by different ethnic groups, including Zhuang and Yao communities, clear ethnicity-based differences in USO plant use were not observed. This may reflect the increasing socio-cultural integration associated with urbanization and modernization in Youjiang District, where Mandarin Chinese has become the dominant language of daily communication and food practices are widely shared among community members. As a result, ethnobotanical knowledge related to USO plants appears to be maintained at the community level rather than within distinct ethnic traditions. This pattern highlights the dynamic nature of traditional knowledge systems, which may become increasingly homogenized under contemporary social and economic change.
Changes in livelihoods, increasing market dependence, and shifts in dietary habits can further affect how this knowledge is transmitted. As people rely more on commercially available foods, opportunities to learn and practice traditional plant use may decline [66]. However, the continued use of USO plants in daily meals helps sustain this knowledge within the community [67].
This relationship shows that knowledge and practice are closely linked. As long as these plants remain part of everyday life, the associated knowledge is more likely to persist and adapt, supporting the long-term resilience of local socio-ecological systems [68, 69].
Implications for sustainable development and future research
The multifunctional roles of underground storage organ (USO) plants suggest significant potential for sustainable development, particularly in relation to food processing, local enterprise, and health-related products. Their suitability for transformation into starches, flours, beverages, and functional foods creates opportunities for value addition while maintaining cultural relevance.
However, increased commercialization may also introduce new pressures. Species with high demand could face overharvesting, especially if market-oriented use begins to outweigh subsistence needs. Balancing economic development with sustainable resource management will therefore be essential.
Future research should focus on both ecological and biochemical dimensions, including the sustainability of harvesting practices and the pharmacological properties of widely used species. Integrating ethnobotanical knowledge with applied research could support the development of locally grounded strategies that address emerging environmental and socio-economic challenges.
While historical events such as the Great Chinese Famine (1959–1961) are highly relevant for understanding long-term patterns of USO plant utilization in China, this study did not specifically collect famine-related narratives due to its ethnobotanical survey design focused on contemporary plant use. This topic therefore represents an important direction for future ethnographic and historical-ecological research on food resilience and traditional coping strategies.
Novelty of the study
This study provides the first comprehensive ethnobotanical documentation focusing specifically on USO plants in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China. Unlike previous studies that broadly investigated wild edible plants or medicinal plants, the present research examines a distinct functional plant group that integrates food and medicinal uses within local knowledge systems.
Importantly, by compiling and critically reviewing all available ethnobotanical literature published from Baise City, this study identifies 24 species as new records for the region, significantly expanding the documented diversity of useful plants in the area and filling important gaps in previous ethnobotanical surveys.
The study demonstrates that USO plants are multifunctional resources utilized as staple foods, vegetables, condiments, beverages, desserts, and medicines, highlighting a food–medicine continuum embedded in everyday life. By combining quantitative ethnobotanical indices (Use Value, Fidelity Level, and Informant Consensus Factor) with detailed analyses of utilization patterns, the study identifies both culturally salient species and species with highly specific medicinal applications.
The findings also reveal the complementary roles of wild, semi-managed, and cultivated USO plants, providing new insights into how local communities maintain and utilize underground plant resources across different management systems. These results contribute baseline data for future comparative ethnobotanical research, sustainable utilization, and conservation planning of edible underground storage organ plants in southern China and other bioculturally diverse regions.
Study limitations
This study was conducted in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China, and involved 60 informants; therefore, the documented ethnobotanical knowledge may not fully represent the diversity of USO plant use in other regions or cultural groups. The survey focused on local markets, home gardens, and field observations, and did not include USO plant species sold exclusively in supermarkets or large retail stores. In addition, the study emphasized plant diversity, traditional utilization, and quantitative ethnobotanical analyses, while economic value and market price assessments were beyond its scope. Furthermore, vernacular plant names in Zhuang and Yao languages were not systematically documented because the present study was designed to investigate ethnobotanical uses of USO plants rather than ethnolinguistic variation, and interviews were conducted in Mandarin Chinese, the common language used in the study area. Similarly, although the study included informants from different ethnic backgrounds, the high degree of cultural integration and shared food practices limited the possibility of conducting meaningful ethnicity-based comparative analyses. Future studies incorporating broader geographic coverage, larger sample sizes, modern retail surveys, socio-economic analyses, linguistic ethnobotanical investigations, and research in less urbanized communities would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the roles of USO plants in local food systems and livelihoods.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that USO plants constitute an important component of local ethnobotanical knowledge in Youjiang District, Guangxi, China. Their diverse culinary and medicinal uses illustrate a food–medicine continuum in which plant resources are integrated into everyday dietary and traditional healthcare practices.
The documented use of wild, semi-managed, and cultivated species reflects the close relationship between local communities and their surrounding environments, while the broad range of utilization patterns demonstrates the multifunctional roles of USO plants within local culture. The high level of agreement among informants indicates that traditional knowledge of these plants remains well maintained in the study area.
Because the harvested underground organs are often essential for plant regeneration, sustainable harvesting and cultivation should be encouraged, particularly for frequently utilized wild species. Community-based initiatives, including home-garden cultivation, ethnobotanical gardens, and local educational activities, may support the sustainable use of culturally important USO plants while promoting the intergenerational transmission of traditional knowledge.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the local informants in Youjiang District, Baise City, Guangxi, China, for generously sharing their valuable knowledge on the use of edible underground storage organ plants. Their cooperation and willingness to participate made this study possible. We also thank local guides and community leaders for their assistance during fieldwork and for facilitating communication with participants. Special appreciation is extended to colleagues and assistants who supported plant collection, identification, and data recording throughout the study. The authors gratefully acknowledge Mahasarakham University for providing financial support for this research.
Author contributions
Y.Z. led the development of the research concept, conducted fieldwork, collected and curated the data, and prepared the initial manuscript draft. T.J. contributed to data analysis, validation, and interpretation, and participated in writing and revising the manuscript. L.L. assisted in field data collection, specimen identification, and resource management. P.S. contributed to the study design, provided supervision, and supported manuscript revision. S.S. supervised the overall project, contributed to conceptualization and methodology, and secured funding. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by Mahasarakham University, Thailand.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
This study did not require formal ethical approval under the institutional regulations applicable at the time of the research. All fieldwork, including ethnobotanical surveys, interviews, and plant collection, was conducted by the Chinese research team, who are native speakers and familiar with the local cultural context. Prior to participation, all informants provided informed verbal consent after the study objectives, methods, and voluntary nature of participation were clearly explained in the local language. No personal or sensitive information was recorded, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time. All research procedures followed the ethical principles outlined in the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics. The Thai authors contributed to data analysis, interpretation, and manuscript preparation but were not involved in field data collection. Respect for local knowledge, cultural values, and intellectual property rights of the participants was maintained throughout the study.
Consent for publication
Informed consent was obtained from all participants for the use of anonymized data in publications.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
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Data Availability Statement
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.