Skip to main content
PMC home page
The Journal of Cell Biology logoLink to The Journal of Cell Biology
. 1996 Jun 1;133(5):1083–1093. doi: 10.1083/jcb.133.5.1083

Inhibition of I kappa B-alpha phosphorylation and degradation and subsequent NF-kappa B activation by glutathione peroxidase overexpression

PMCID: PMC2120847  PMID: 8655581

Abstract

We report here that both kappa B-dependent transactivation of a reporter gene and NF-kappa B activation in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF alpha) or H2O2 treatments are deficient in human T47D cell transfectants that overexpress seleno-glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx). These cells feature low reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and decreased intracellular ROS burst in response to TNF alpha treatment. Decreased ROS levels and NF-kappa B activation were likely to result from GSHPx increment since these phenomena were no longer observed when GSHPx activity was reduced by selenium depletion. The cellular contents of the two NF-kappa B subunits (p65 and p50) and of the inhibitory subunit I kappa B-alpha were unaffected by GSHPx overexpression, suggesting that increased GSHPx activity interfered with the activation, but not the synthesis or stability, of Nf-kappa B. Nuclear translocation of NF-kappa B as well as I kappa B-alpha degradation were inhabited in GSHPx-overexpressing cells exposed to oxidative stress. Moreover, in control T47D cells exposed to TNF alpha, a time correlation was observed between elevated ROS levels and I kappa B- alpha degradation. We also show that, in growing T47D cells, GSHPx overexpression altered the isoform composition of I kappa B-alpha, leading to the accumulation of the more basic isoform of this protein. GSHPx overexpression also abolished the TNF alpha-mediated transient accumulation of the acidic and highly phosphorylated I kappa B-alpha isoform. These results suggest that intracellular ROS are key elements that regulate the phosphorylation of I kappa B-alpha, a phenomenon that precedes and controls the degradation of this protein, and then NF- kappa B activation.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (2.1 MB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Arenzana-Seisdedos F., Thompson J., Rodriguez M. S., Bachelerie F., Thomas D., Hay R. T. Inducible nuclear expression of newly synthesized I kappa B alpha negatively regulates DNA-binding and transcriptional activities of NF-kappa B. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 May;15(5):2689–2696. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.5.2689. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Arrigo A. P., Tanaka K., Goldberg A. L., Welch W. J. Identity of the 19S 'prosome' particle with the large multifunctional protease complex of mammalian cells (the proteasome). Nature. 1988 Jan 14;331(6152):192–194. doi: 10.1038/331192a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Baeuerle P. A., Baltimore D. A 65-kappaD subunit of active NF-kappaB is required for inhibition of NF-kappaB by I kappaB. Genes Dev. 1989 Nov;3(11):1689–1698. doi: 10.1101/gad.3.11.1689. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Baeuerle P. A., Baltimore D. Activation of DNA-binding activity in an apparently cytoplasmic precursor of the NF-kappa B transcription factor. Cell. 1988 Apr 22;53(2):211–217. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90382-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Baeuerle P. A., Baltimore D. I kappa B: a specific inhibitor of the NF-kappa B transcription factor. Science. 1988 Oct 28;242(4878):540–546. doi: 10.1126/science.3140380. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Baeuerle P. A., Henkel T. Function and activation of NF-kappa B in the immune system. Annu Rev Immunol. 1994;12:141–179. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.001041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Baeuerle P. A. The inducible transcription activator NF-kappa B: regulation by distinct protein subunits. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1991 Apr 16;1072(1):63–80. doi: 10.1016/0304-419x(91)90007-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Beauchamp C. O., Fridovich I. Isozymes of superoxide dismutase from wheat germ. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1973 Jul 12;317(1):50–64. doi: 10.1016/0005-2795(73)90198-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Beg A. A., Finco T. S., Nantermet P. V., Baldwin A. S., Jr Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 lead to phosphorylation and loss of I kappa B alpha: a mechanism for NF-kappa B activation. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Jun;13(6):3301–3310. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.6.3301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Beg A. A., Ruben S. M., Scheinman R. I., Haskill S., Rosen C. A., Baldwin A. S., Jr I kappa B interacts with the nuclear localization sequences of the subunits of NF-kappa B: a mechanism for cytoplasmic retention. Genes Dev. 1992 Oct;6(10):1899–1913. doi: 10.1101/gad.6.10.1899. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Bours V., Villalobos J., Burd P. R., Kelly K., Siebenlist U. Cloning of a mitogen-inducible gene encoding a kappa B DNA-binding protein with homology to the rel oncogene and to cell-cycle motifs. Nature. 1990 Nov 1;348(6296):76–80. doi: 10.1038/348076a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Brockman J. A., Scherer D. C., McKinsey T. A., Hall S. M., Qi X., Lee W. Y., Ballard D. W. Coupling of a signal response domain in I kappa B alpha to multiple pathways for NF-kappa B activation. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 May;15(5):2809–2818. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.5.2809. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Brown K., Gerstberger S., Carlson L., Franzoso G., Siebenlist U. Control of I kappa B-alpha proteolysis by site-specific, signal-induced phosphorylation. Science. 1995 Mar 10;267(5203):1485–1488. doi: 10.1126/science.7878466. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Brown K., Park S., Kanno T., Franzoso G., Siebenlist U. Mutual regulation of the transcriptional activator NF-kappa B and its inhibitor, I kappa B-alpha. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Mar 15;90(6):2532–2536. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.6.2532. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Carter W. O., Narayanan P. K., Robinson J. P. Intracellular hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion detection in endothelial cells. J Leukoc Biol. 1994 Feb;55(2):253–258. doi: 10.1002/jlb.55.2.253. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Chen Z., Hagler J., Palombella V. J., Melandri F., Scherer D., Ballard D., Maniatis T. Signal-induced site-specific phosphorylation targets I kappa B alpha to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Genes Dev. 1995 Jul 1;9(13):1586–1597. doi: 10.1101/gad.9.13.1586. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Chiao P. J., Miyamoto S., Verma I. M. Autoregulation of I kappa B alpha activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Jan 4;91(1):28–32. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.1.28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Christiansen N. O. A time-course study on superoxide generation and protein kinase C activation in human neutrophils. FEBS Lett. 1988 Nov 7;239(2):195–198. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(88)80915-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Das U. N., Padma M., Sagar P. S., Ramesh G., Koratkar R. Stimulation of free radical generation in human leukocytes by various agents including tumor necrosis factor is a calmodulin dependent process. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1990 Mar 30;167(3):1030–1036. doi: 10.1016/0006-291x(90)90626-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. DiDonato J. A., Mercurio F., Karin M. Phosphorylation of I kappa B alpha precedes but is not sufficient for its dissociation from NF-kappa B. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Mar;15(3):1302–1311. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.3.1302. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Dobrzanski P., Ryseck R. P., Bravo R. Differential interactions of Rel-NF-kappa B complexes with I kappa B alpha determine pools of constitutive and inducible NF-kappa B activity. EMBO J. 1994 Oct 3;13(19):4608–4616. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06782.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Driscoll J., Goldberg A. L. The proteasome (multicatalytic protease) is a component of the 1500-kDa proteolytic complex which degrades ubiquitin-conjugated proteins. J Biol Chem. 1990 Mar 25;265(9):4789–4792. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Dworkin B. M., Rosenthal W. S., Wormser G. P., Weiss L., Nunez M., Joline C., Herp A. Abnormalities of blood selenium and glutathione peroxidase activity in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and aids-related complex. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1988 Jan-Apr;15:167–177. doi: 10.1007/BF02990135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Fan C. M., Maniatis T. Generation of p50 subunit of NF-kappa B by processing of p105 through an ATP-dependent pathway. Nature. 1991 Dec 5;354(6352):395–398. doi: 10.1038/354395a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Finco T. S., Beg A. A., Baldwin A. S., Jr Inducible phosphorylation of I kappa B alpha is not sufficient for its dissociation from NF-kappa B and is inhibited by protease inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Dec 6;91(25):11884–11888. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.25.11884. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Ghosh S., Gifford A. M., Riviere L. R., Tempst P., Nolan G. P., Baltimore D. Cloning of the p50 DNA binding subunit of NF-kappa B: homology to rel and dorsal. Cell. 1990 Sep 7;62(5):1019–1029. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90276-k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Grilli M., Chiu J. J., Lenardo M. J. NF-kappa B and Rel: participants in a multiform transcriptional regulatory system. Int Rev Cytol. 1993;143:1–62. doi: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)61873-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Grimm S., Baeuerle P. A. The inducible transcription factor NF-kappa B: structure-function relationship of its protein subunits. Biochem J. 1993 Mar 1;290(Pt 2):297–308. doi: 10.1042/bj2900297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Haskill S., Beg A. A., Tompkins S. M., Morris J. S., Yurochko A. D., Sampson-Johannes A., Mondal K., Ralph P., Baldwin A. S., Jr Characterization of an immediate-early gene induced in adherent monocytes that encodes I kappa B-like activity. Cell. 1991 Jun 28;65(7):1281–1289. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90022-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Henkel T., Machleidt T., Alkalay I., Krönke M., Ben-Neriah Y., Baeuerle P. A. Rapid proteolysis of I kappa B-alpha is necessary for activation of transcription factor NF-kappa B. Nature. 1993 Sep 9;365(6442):182–185. doi: 10.1038/365182a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Jaffray E., Wood K. M., Hay R. T. Domain organization of I kappa B alpha and sites of interaction with NF-kappa B p65. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Apr;15(4):2166–2172. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.4.2166. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Kerr L. D., Inoue J., Davis N., Link E., Baeuerle P. A., Bose H. R., Jr, Verma I. M. The rel-associated pp40 protein prevents DNA binding of Rel and NF-kappa B: relationship with I kappa B beta and regulation by phosphorylation. Genes Dev. 1991 Aug;5(8):1464–1476. doi: 10.1101/gad.5.8.1464. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Kretz-Remy C., Arrigo A. P. The kinetics of HIV-1 long terminal repeat transcriptional activation resemble those of hsp70 promoter in heat-shock treated HeLa cells. FEBS Lett. 1994 Oct 24;353(3):339–344. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(94)00828-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Li C. C., Dai R. M., Longo D. L. Inactivation of NF-kappa B inhibitor I kappa B alpha: ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis and its degradation product. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1995 Oct 4;215(1):292–301. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1995.2465. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Lim K., Chae C. B. A simple assay for DNA transfection by incubation of the cells in culture dishes with substrates for beta-galactosidase. Biotechniques. 1989 Jun;7(6):576–579. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Lin Y. C., Brown K., Siebenlist U. Activation of NF-kappa B requires proteolysis of the inhibitor I kappa B-alpha: signal-induced phosphorylation of I kappa B-alpha alone does not release active NF-kappa B. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 Jan 17;92(2):552–556. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.2.552. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Mannervik B. Glutathione peroxidase. Methods Enzymol. 1985;113:490–495. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(85)13063-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Mehlen P., Kretz-Remy C., Briolay J., Fostan P., Mirault M. E., Arrigo A. P. Intracellular reactive oxygen species as apparent modulators of heat-shock protein 27 (hsp27) structural organization and phosphorylation in basal and tumour necrosis factor alpha-treated T47D human carcinoma cells. Biochem J. 1995 Dec 1;312(Pt 2):367–375. doi: 10.1042/bj3120367. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Mehlen P., Preville X., Chareyron P., Briolay J., Klemenz R., Arrigo A. P. Constitutive expression of human hsp27, Drosophila hsp27, or human alpha B-crystallin confers resistance to TNF- and oxidative stress-induced cytotoxicity in stably transfected murine L929 fibroblasts. J Immunol. 1995 Jan 1;154(1):363–374. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Meier B., Radeke H. H., Selle S., Younes M., Sies H., Resch K., Habermehl G. G. Human fibroblasts release reactive oxygen species in response to interleukin-1 or tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Biochem J. 1989 Oct 15;263(2):539–545. doi: 10.1042/bj2630539. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Mellits K. H., Hay R. T., Goodbourn S. Proteolytic degradation of MAD3 (I kappa B alpha) and enhanced processing of the NF-kappa B precursor p105 are obligatory steps in the activation of NF-kappa B. Nucleic Acids Res. 1993 Nov 11;21(22):5059–5066. doi: 10.1093/nar/21.22.5059. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Mercurio F., DiDonato J. A., Rosette C., Karin M. p105 and p98 precursor proteins play an active role in NF-kappa B-mediated signal transduction. Genes Dev. 1993 Apr;7(4):705–718. doi: 10.1101/gad.7.4.705. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Meskini N., Nemoz G., Chapuy P., Haond P., Pageaux J. F., Vericel E., Lagarde M., Prigent A. F. Glutathione peroxidase activity and metabolism of arachidonic acid in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from elderly subjects. Clin Sci (Lond) 1993 Aug;85(2):203–211. doi: 10.1042/cs0850203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Meyer M., Schreck R., Baeuerle P. A. H2O2 and antioxidants have opposite effects on activation of NF-kappa B and AP-1 in intact cells: AP-1 as secondary antioxidant-responsive factor. EMBO J. 1993 May;12(5):2005–2015. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05850.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Mirault M. E., Tremblay A., Beaudoin N., Tremblay M. Overexpression of seleno-glutathione peroxidase by gene transfer enhances the resistance of T47D human breast cells to clastogenic oxidants. J Biol Chem. 1991 Nov 5;266(31):20752–20760. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Nabel G., Baltimore D. An inducible transcription factor activates expression of human immunodeficiency virus in T cells. Nature. 1987 Apr 16;326(6114):711–713. doi: 10.1038/326711a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Nguyen V. T., Bensaude O. Increased thermal aggregation of proteins in ATP-depleted mammalian cells. Eur J Biochem. 1994 Feb 15;220(1):239–246. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1994.tb18619.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Nolan G. P., Baltimore D. The inhibitory ankyrin and activator Rel proteins. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 1992 Apr;2(2):211–220. doi: 10.1016/s0959-437x(05)80276-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Olmsted L., Schrauzer G. N., Flores-Arce M., Dowd J. Selenium supplementation of symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infected patients. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1989 Apr-May;20(1-2):59–65. doi: 10.1007/BF02919098. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Pahl H. L., Baeuerle P. A. A novel signal transduction pathway from the endoplasmic reticulum to the nucleus is mediated by transcription factor NF-kappa B. EMBO J. 1995 Jun 1;14(11):2580–2588. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07256.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Palombella V. J., Rando O. J., Goldberg A. L., Maniatis T. The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway is required for processing the NF-kappa B1 precursor protein and the activation of NF-kappa B. Cell. 1994 Sep 9;78(5):773–785. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(94)90482-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Rice N. R., Ernst M. K. In vivo control of NF-kappa B activation by I kappa B alpha. EMBO J. 1993 Dec;12(12):4685–4695. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb06157.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Rothe G., Valet G. Flow cytometric analysis of respiratory burst activity in phagocytes with hydroethidine and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin. J Leukoc Biol. 1990 May;47(5):440–448. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Ruben S. M., Dillon P. J., Schreck R., Henkel T., Chen C. H., Maher M., Baeuerle P. A., Rosen C. A. Isolation of a rel-related human cDNA that potentially encodes the 65-kD subunit of NF-kappa B. Science. 1991 Mar 22;251(5000):1490–1493. doi: 10.1126/science.2006423. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Sappey C., Legrand-Poels S., Best-Belpomme M., Favier A., Rentier B., Piette J. Stimulation of glutathione peroxidase activity decreases HIV type 1 activation after oxidative stress. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1994 Nov;10(11):1451–1461. doi: 10.1089/aid.1994.10.1451. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Schmidt K. N., Amstad P., Cerutti P., Baeuerle P. A. The roles of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide as messengers in the activation of transcription factor NF-kappa B. Chem Biol. 1995 Jan;2(1):13–22. doi: 10.1016/1074-5521(95)90076-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Schmitz M. L., Henkel T., Baeuerle P. A. Proteins controlling the nuclear uptake of NF-kappa B, Rel and dorsal. Trends Cell Biol. 1991 Nov;1(5):130–137. doi: 10.1016/0962-8924(91)90118-s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Schreck R., Albermann K., Baeuerle P. A. Nuclear factor kappa B: an oxidative stress-responsive transcription factor of eukaryotic cells (a review). Free Radic Res Commun. 1992;17(4):221–237. doi: 10.3109/10715769209079515. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Schreck R., Rieber P., Baeuerle P. A. Reactive oxygen intermediates as apparently widely used messengers in the activation of the NF-kappa B transcription factor and HIV-1. EMBO J. 1991 Aug;10(8):2247–2258. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1991.tb07761.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Schulze-Osthoff K., Beyaert R., Vandevoorde V., Haegeman G., Fiers W. Depletion of the mitochondrial electron transport abrogates the cytotoxic and gene-inductive effects of TNF. EMBO J. 1993 Aug;12(8):3095–3104. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05978.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Sen R., Baltimore D. Inducibility of kappa immunoglobulin enhancer-binding protein Nf-kappa B by a posttranslational mechanism. Cell. 1986 Dec 26;47(6):921–928. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90807-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Siebenlist U., Franzoso G., Brown K. Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa B. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1994;10:405–455. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.10.110194.002201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Sies H. Strategies of antioxidant defense. Eur J Biochem. 1993 Jul 15;215(2):213–219. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb18025.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Speier C., Baker S. S., Newburger P. E. Relationships between in vitro selenium supply, glutathione peroxidase activity, and phagocytic function in the HL-60 human myeloid cell line. J Biol Chem. 1985 Jul 25;260(15):8951–8955. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Staal F. J., Roederer M., Herzenberg L. A., Herzenberg L. A. Intracellular thiols regulate activation of nuclear factor kappa B and transcription of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Dec;87(24):9943–9947. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.24.9943. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Sun S. C., Ganchi P. A., Ballard D. W., Greene W. C. NF-kappa B controls expression of inhibitor I kappa B alpha: evidence for an inducible autoregulatory pathway. Science. 1993 Mar 26;259(5103):1912–1915. doi: 10.1126/science.8096091. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Suttorp N., Simon L. M. Importance of the glutathione redox cycle for the resistance of lung epithelial cells against a polymorphonuclear leukocyte-mediated oxidant attack. Biochem Pharmacol. 1986 Jul 1;35(13):2268–2270. doi: 10.1016/0006-2952(86)90605-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Thanos D., Maniatis T. NF-kappa B: a lesson in family values. Cell. 1995 Feb 24;80(4):529–532. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90506-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Traenckner E. B., Pahl H. L., Henkel T., Schmidt K. N., Wilk S., Baeuerle P. A. Phosphorylation of human I kappa B-alpha on serines 32 and 36 controls I kappa B-alpha proteolysis and NF-kappa B activation in response to diverse stimuli. EMBO J. 1995 Jun 15;14(12):2876–2883. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07287.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Yim M. B., Chock P. B., Stadtman E. R. Copper, zinc superoxide dismutase catalyzes hydroxyl radical production from hydrogen peroxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jul;87(13):5006–5010. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.13.5006. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Zabel U., Schreck R., Baeuerle P. A. DNA binding of purified transcription factor NF-kappa B. Affinity, specificity, Zn2+ dependence, and differential half-site recognition. J Biol Chem. 1991 Jan 5;266(1):252–260. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from The Journal of Cell Biology are provided here courtesy of The Rockefeller University Press

RESOURCES